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THE  TEACHING  OF 
GEOGRAPHY 


EMPHASIZING   THE   PROJECT,  OR 
ACTIVE,   METHOD 


BY 


MENDEL  E.  BRANOM 

DEPARTMENT  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  HARRIS  TEACHERS   COLLEGE,  ST.  LOUIS 
AUTHOR    OF  "THE    PROJECT   METHOD   IN    EDUCATION,"  ETC. 

AND 

FRED   K.   BRANOM 

DEPARTMENT  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  CHICAGO  NORMAL  COLLEGE,  CHICAGO 


GINN  AND  COMPANY 

BOSTON     •     NEW   YORK     •     CHICAGO     •     LONDON 
ATLANTA     •     DALLAS     •     COLUMBUS     •     SAN    FRANCISCO 


COPYRIGHT,  1921,  BY  MENDEL  E.  BRANOM 

AND  FRED  K.  BRANOM 

ALL  RIGHTS   RESERVED 

8232 


Cbc   satbtnaeum   firtss 

<,!NN'   AM)   COMPANY-  PRO- 
PRIETORS •  liOSTO.N"  •  U.S.A. 


TO 

DOUGLAS    C.   RIDGLEY 

PROFESSOR  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  ILLINOIS  STATE   NORMAL  UNIVERSITY 

WHO   INSPIRED  BOTH  AUTHORS   TO  TAKE   UP 

THE  STUDY  OF   GEOGRAPHY 


PREFACE 

This  book  is  the  product  of  several  years'  experience  by  the 
authors  in  the  directing  of  method  courses  in  normal  schools 
and  universities.  The  "new  geography,"  emphasizing  inter- 
„  pretations  as  well  as  facts,  has  been  heartily  received.  The 
"  modern  spirit,  however,  has  been  imparted  primarily  by  the 
.  geography  departments  of  the  universities,  where  the  emphasis 
is  placed  on  academic  geography  and  the  organization  of 
geographic  materials  into  a  coherent  body  of  knowledge.  Both 
the  content  and  method  books  of  geography  reflect  the  in- 
fluence of  the  higher  schools.  The  educator  is  not  primarily 
interested  in  geography  as  an  academic  subject,  but  as  a  means 
of  giving  the  child  desirable  experiences.  He  does  not  hesi- 
tate to  overstep  the  boundary  lines  between  subjects  if  he 
can  give  the  child  more  befitting  experiences.  A  practical 
man  does  not  meet  one  situation  that  he  calls  geography  and 
another  situation  that  he  calls  history,  but  in  the  meeting  of 
a  situation  he  draws  on  any  subject  needed,  in  the  proportion 
needed,  to  make  an  adequate  interpretation.  In  his  enthusiasm 
to  organize  educational  content  in  accordance  with  the  way 
that  the  world  uses  it,  the  educator  has  suggested  the  possi- 
bility of  blending  content  subjects  in  unit  situations  under  the 
name  of  social  studies. 

The  authors  hold  that  it  is  possible  to  organize  the  geogra- 
phy course  of  study  in  such  a  way  that  the  dominant  viewpoint 
will  be  geographic  and  at  the  same  time  will  permit  of  the 
interpretation  of  materials  about  life  centers. 

Geography  is  primarily  a  study  of  the  interacting  relations 
of  life  forms  and  nature.    It  is  essentially  a  study  of  place 


vi  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

relations  and  of  the  adjustments  which  man  makes  to  the 
geographic  regions  with  their  varied  resources.  Since  much  of 
the  geographic  content  involves  regions  far  away,  consider- 
able care  is  necessary  in  providing  the  child  with  local  experi- 
ences and  with  visualization  materials,  as  pictures  and  maps, 
that  will  enable  him  to  form  accurate  concepts.  The  geog- 
raphers have  been  rapidly  at  work  socializing  the  content  by 
analyzing  the  influence  of  the  geographic  environment  upon 
human  affairs.  The  teacher  is  socializing  the  content  by  show- 
ing the  pupils  the  significance  of  their  studies  in  relation  to 
the  present,  and  she  is  socializing  the  method  by  throwing 
much  of  the  responsibility  of  class  organization  in  relation  to 
geographic  topics  upon  the  class.  An  attempt  is  made  to  relate 
the  work  to  the  child's  interests  and  experiences  and  to  give 
the  child  a  worth-while  motive,  so  that  he  will  attack  the 
problems  whole-heartedly. 

Much  remains  to  be  done  in  the  devising  of  adequate  tests 
and  scales,  but  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  indicate  the  lines 
of  study  that  seem  most  promising. 

MENDEL  E.  BRANOM 
FRED  K.  BRANOM 


CONTENTS 

PART  ONE.    THE  VIEWPOINT 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  The  Practical  Nature  of  Geography    ....  3 
II.  The  Evolution  of  Geographic  Knowledge  empha- 
sizing the  Development  of  Civilizations    .     .  22 

III.  The  Relation  of  Geography  to  Other  Subjects  39 

IV.  The  Evolution  of  Geography  Method  ....  51 
V.  Aims  or  Purposes  in  the  Teaching  of  Geography  62 

PART  TWO.    THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY 
VI.  The  Organization  of  a  Course  of  Study   ...       75 

PART  THREE.    THE  MATERIALS  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

VII.  Observational  Geography 93 

VIII.  Representative,  or  Symbolic,  Geography    .     .     .     109 

PART  FOUR.   THE  CLASS 

IX.  Class  Organization 133 

X.  Socialization  axd  Free  Activity 145 

XI.  The  Relation  of  the  Study  Period  to  the  Reci- 
tation" Period 155 

PART  FIVE.    THE   PROJECT,  OR  ACTIVE,   METHOD 

XII.  The  Motivation  of  Geography 165 

XIII.  The  Problem  Method  of  Teaching  Geography  .  173 

XIV.  The  Argumentative  Lesson     , 193 

vii 


viii  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XV.  The  Topical  Outline 201 

XVI.  Journey  Geography 211 

XVII.  Type  Studies 224 

XVIII.  The  Story 231 

XIX.  Dramatization 238 

XX.  The  Project 246 

PART  SIX.    TESTS  AND   SCALES 

XXI.  Measuring  Results 265 

INDEX 289 


THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 
PART  ONE.    THE  VIEWPOINT 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  PRACTICAL  NATURE  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

The  importance  of  geography.  The  World  War  was 
helpful  in  arousing  a  keen  interest  in  the  study  of  geog- 
raphy. The  correct  interpretation  of  many  problems 
affecting  the  general  welfare  required  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  geographic  relations.  The  ordinary  economic  ac- 
tivities and  redistribution  of  surplus  commodities  were 
seriously  disturbed.  In  common  with  the  other  Allies  the 
people  of  the  United  States  feverishly  engaged  in  a  search 
for  new  sources  of  needed  raw  materials.  Careful  surveys 
to  determine  the  available  supplies  were  made.  The  trans- 
porting system  was  reorganized  in  an  attempt  to  secure 
maximum  efficiency.  The  fundamental  dependence  of  the 
social  structure  upon  earth  resources,  as  coal,  iron,  wheat, 
and  cotton,  was  clearly  seen. 

The  relations  of  mankind  to  nature's  resources  are  just 
as  significant  in  times  of  peace.  Geography  is,  therefore, 
as  significant  in  helping  to  solve  the  reconstruction  prob- 
lems and  the  ordinary  problems  of  life  as  it  has  been  in 
helping  to  solve  the  problems  of  war. 

The  activities  of  man.  In  the  evolution  of  the  social 
group  increasing  specialization  has  occurred.  Man  no 
longer  depends  primarily  on  the  immediate  environment 
for  products  that  he  needs  and  wants.  Practically  the 
whole  earth  contributes  to  his  welfare.  He  clothes  him- 
self with  garments  made  of  cotton  from  the  southern 


4  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

United  States,  of  wool  from  Australia  or  Argentina,  or  of 
silk  from  Japan.  His  home  may  contain  beautiful  furni- 
ture made  from  the  hardwood  lumber  of  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee  or  from  the  beautiful  rosewood  and  mahogany 
of  tropical  forests.  In  the  preparation  of  his  meal  he  may 
draw  upon  the  coffee  of  Brazil  or  the  cocoa  of  Ecuador  or 
the  tea  of  Japan.  The  dessert  may  contain  bananas  from 
Central  America  and  pineapples  from  Cuba.  He  may 
sweeten  his  coffee  with  sugar  from  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 
In  the  competitive  world-wide  economic  struggle  there  is 
a  tendency  for  each  community  to  specialize  in  the  produc- 
tion of  the  commodity  or  commodities  which  it  best  can 
produce.  Even  in  the  local  community  there  is  a  tendency 
for  each  person  to  learn  how  to  do  one  thing  in  a  superior 
fashion.  In  the  complex  social  organization  that  has 
resulted  no  man  liveth  unto  himself  alone ;  each  person 
serves  others  and  in  turn  depends  upon  others  for  service. 
Irrespective  of  the  type  of  activity  in  which  an  individual 
engages  the  geographic  viewpoint  is  vital. 

The  major  activities  of  man  are  (i)  vocational,  (2)  rec- 
reational, and  (3)  political. 

VOCATIONAL  ACTIVITIES 

The  leading  vocational  activities  may  be  classified  as 
follows : 

1.  Agricultural  activities. 

2.  Pastoral  activities. 

3.  Lumbering  activities. 

4.  Hunting  and  trapping  activities. 

5.  Fishing  activities. 


THE  PRACTICAL  NATURE  OF  GEOGRAPHY   5 

6.  Mining  activities. 

7.  Manufacturing  activities. 

8.  Transporting  activities. 

9.  Professional  activities. 

10.  Investment  activities. 

11.  Middleman  activities. 

1.  Agricultural  Activities 
The  farmer  lives  very  close  to  nature.  The  important 
factors  of  crop  production,  rainfall,  temperature,  soils,  and 
drainage  are  not  under  his  absolute  control.  The  amount, 
kind,  and  distribution  of  precipitation  are  independent  of 
his  personal  desires.  The  farmer  needs  to  work  with 
nature.  He  breaks  up  the  ground,  loosening  the  soil  and 
making  the  surface  more  irregular  in  order  to  increase 
the  amount  of  moisture  that  may  be  stored  in  the  ground. 
He  keeps  the  top  crust  broken  so  as  to  break  up  the 
capillary  movement  of  water  to  the  surface.  He  tiles  the 
wet  places,  digs  large  ditches  for  the  removal  of  surplus 
water,  and  stores  the  surplus  waters  so  that  they  can  be 
diverted  over  the  parched  fields  when  the  rain  fails. 

The  farmer  is  helpless,  except  in  a  minor  way,  in  af- 
fecting the  temperature  changes.  At  considerable  expense 
he  can  regulate  the  temperature  of  greenhouses  and  of  hot- 
beds. If  the  temperature  over  the  fruit  orchards  of  Flor- 
ida and  California  falls  to  the  danger  point,  smudge  fires 
will  prevent  or  decrease  damage  to  the  orchards,  provided 
the  temperature  normally  would  go  only  slightly  below 
the  danger  point.  Shading  is  practiced  in  the  production 
of  certain  qualities  of  tobacco  and  coffee.  The  farmer 
must  adjust  himself,  however,  to  the  major  temperature 


6  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

controls.  Shortly  after  America  was  discovered  explorers 
who  had  reached  the  mainland  during  the  summer  season 
spread  reports  of  a  warm  climate.  Settlers,  expecting  to 
find  high  temperatures  favorable  for  the  immediate  plant- 
ing of  seeds,  came  to  America  in  the  late  fall.  They  were 
surprised  to  find  that  a  cold  season  was  at  hand,  during 
which,  being  unprepared,  they  suffered  miserably.  The 
farmer  of  Minnesota  who  orders  fruit  trees  or  seeds  from 
Georgia  is  ignoring  the  fact  that  the  plants  have  thriven 
amidst  conditions  involving  a  long  growing  season.  The 
truck  gardener  who  plants  the  seeds  on  the  first  warm  day 
of  spring  may  be  deeply  disappointed  because  of  the  de- 
struction of  the  young  plants  by  a  heavy  frost.  In  inter- 
mediate latitudes  the  farmer  who  places  his  orchard  on 
a  southern  slope  is  taking  into  consideration  the  impor- 
tance of  heat  in  the  production  of  fruit,  but  he  is  neglect- 
ing the  fact  that  in  the  spring,  when  winter  is  entering 
upon  a  death  struggle  with  summer,  the  buds  may  open 
under  the  friendly  encouragement  of  the  warm  sunshine 
only  to  be  damaged  by  a  frost,  while  the  trees  on  the 
northern  slopes  may  be  practically  unharmed. 

Many  people  have  purchased  farms  in  the  flood  plain 
of  the  Mississippi,  to  find  later  that  the  land  was  almost 
valueless  because  of  the  overflows  and  the  changing  river. 
In  many  places,  as  in  certain  localities  in  northern 
Missouri  and  in  southern  Illinois,  are  large  areas  of 
apparently  excellent  farms,  but  the  underlying  hardpan 
materially  decreases  the  actual  value  of  the  land.  In  the 
Great  Valley  of  East  Tennessee  alternating  layers  of 
shales,  sandstones,  and  limestones  have  been  tilted  on 
edge.    The  subsequent  disintegration  and  decomposition 


THE  PRACTICAL  NATURE  OF  GEOGRAPHY   7 

of  the  rocks  have  resulted  in  different  types  of  soils.  The 
farming  land  varies  so  much  in  quality  in  short  distances 
that  the  value  of  one  farm  is  no  criterion  for  the  value  of 
adjoining  farms.  Near  Lexington,  Kentucky,  a  faulting 
has  occurred  as  a  result  of  which  a  rich  limestone  soil  is  on 
one  side  of  the  fault  and  a  poor  shaly  soil  on  the  opposite 
side.  A  farmer  of  the  Great  Valley  of  East  Tennessee 
knows  from  experience  that  the  best  soil  of  his  region 
ordinarily  is  a  red  soil.  If  he  should  move  to  central 
Illinois  and  should  prefer  a  farm  with  a  reddish  soil, 
however,  he  would  make  a  serious  mistake,  for  the  best 
farms  of  central  Illinois  have  deep  black  soils. 

The  farmer  who  removes  the  trees  and  cultivates  a 
very  steep  slope  may  hasten  the  gullying  of  the  hillside 
and  the  deposition  of  materials  in  the  fertile  lowland  area. 
Plowing  up  and  down  the  slopes  forms  depressions  that 
encourage  erosion.  The  selection  of  the  lowest  part  of 
the  farm  for  pastureland  is  a  response  to  the  greater 
available  moisture  content.  Agricultural  activities  on  the 
alluvial  plains  and  pastoral  activities  in  the  adjoining 
hills  reflect  topographic,  soil,  and  moisture  contrasts. 

On  the  basis  of  experience  the  time  for  planting 
various  seeds,  the  kind  and  extent  of  cultivation,  and  the 
best  time  and  way  to  harvest  have  been  determined.  In 
spite  of  this  knowledge,  however,  a  late  frost  in  spring 
or  an  early  frost  in  the  fall  may  seriously  damage  the 
crops.  The  hot,  dry  winds  of  the  summer  months  may 
burn  the  crops,  a  cold  wave  may  kill  the  fruit,  or  the 
weather  may  be  too  wet  or  too  dry.  Conditions  may 
favor  the  multiplication  of  pests,  as  the  chinch  bug,  the 
army  worm,  and  the  boll  weevil.    The  farmer  seeks  to 


8  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

adapt  his  activities  to  nature's  requirements,  and  the 
extent  to  which  he  is  able  to  do  this  determines  success 
or  failure. 

2.  Pastoral  Activities 

When  the  area  north  of  the  Ohio  River  was  sparsely 
populated  live  stock  was  relatively  of  much  significance. 
The  cattle  transported  themselves  over  the  long  trails  to 
a  market.  A  few  years  ago,  in  the  vast,  semiarid  region 
of  the  West,  cattle  trails,  with  wide,  grassy  areas  on  each 
side,  were  laid  out.  Along  these  trails  numerous  herds  of 
cattle  were  driven  to  railroad  stations.  With  increasing 
population  suitable  areas  are  given  over  to  crop  produc- 
tion, and  live-stock  raising  is  related  to  mixed  farming. 
Grain  farming  largely  dominated  for  several  years,  but 
with  diminishing  returns  from  an  increasingly  impov- 
erished soil  the  necessity  of  raising  animals,  so  that  the 
soil  may  be  rested  and  fertilized,  becomes  acute.  Ordi- 
narily an  area  that  is  best  adapted  to  crop  production  is 
also  best  adapted  to  animal  production,  since  the  domesti- 
cated animals  depend  on  vegetation  for  their  existence. 
The  typical  pastoral  activities,  however,  are  found  in 
areas  where  grass  is  produced  but  where  climatic  condi- 
tions are  unfavorable  for  a  more  intensive  use.  Condi- 
tions are  not  ideal,  but  are  better  adapted  to  stock  raising 
than  to  crop  production. 

A  person  engaged  in  pastoral  activities  should  be 
acquainted  with  poisonous  weeds  on  which  the  animals 
may  feed,  must  take  care  that  the  grazing  grounds  are 
not  overstocked,  must  know  the  location  of  fresh-water 
pools  and  the  extent  to  which  he  can  depend  on  them, 


THE  PRACTICAL  NATURE  OF  GEOGRAPHY       9 

must  anticipate  pasturage  and  water  shortage  during  the 
dry  season,  and  must  provide  the  necessary  shelter  against 
the  low  temperatures  and  storms  of  winter.  In  many 
places  the  scattered  grasses  cannot  profitably  be  cut  and 
converted  into  hay,  but  after  the  few  weeks  of  precipita- 
tion favorable  for  the  growth  of  grasses  may  come  a 
period  of  high  temperatures  and  little  rainfall,  which 
cures  the  grass  in  situ.  The  deep  snows  of  winter  may 
cover  the  grasses  so  that  the  cattle  cannot  reach  them. 
In  certain  areas  the  aid  of  chinook  winds,  which  rapidly 
melt  the  snow  so  that  the  underlying  grasses  are  avail- 
able, removes  the  danger  of  starvation  or  the  necessity 
of  securing  more  expensive  feed. 

3.  Lumbering  Activities 

Innumerable  uses  for  lumber  have  been  found.  Many 
farms  have  been  located  with  reference  to  the  proximity 
of  large  forest  trees.  There  are  numerous  varieties  of 
trees,  many  of  which  produce  lumber  or  other  products 
useful  to  man.  The  lumberman  must  be  able  to  identify 
the  different  varieties  of  trees  and  to  calculate  their  value. 
All  the  lumbering  operations  must  be  carefully  planned 
so  that  a  maximum  cooperation  of  nature's  forces  may 
be  secured.  The  tree  must  be  cut  in  such  a  way  that  it 
will  fall  where  least  damage  to  younger  trees  will  be 
done  and  where  the  logs  can  be  most  economically 
handled.  In  some  of  the  Northern  swamps  logging  opera- 
tions are  carried  on  in  the  winter,  when  the  frozen  ground 
gives  a  solid  foundation.  Excellent  roads  of  snow  and 
ice  may  be  made  along  which  the  logs  are  dragged  or 


io  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

hauled  on  sleds  to  the  water's  edge.  With  the  coming  of 
warm  weather  the  ice  of  the  river  breaks  up  and  the 
logs  are  floated  downstream  to  the  sawmill.  In  the 
southern  Appalachians,  where  there  is  a  very  rugged 
topography,  lumbering  operations  are  carried  on  during 
the  warmer  part  of  the  year,  the  cold,  stormy  weather  of 
winter  making  it  very  difficult  to  cut  and  remove  the 
logs  where  the  area  is  pronouncedly  rugged.  In  tropical 
forests  the  difficulties  are  all  but  insurmountable.  The 
dense  undergrowth  must  be  cut  away,  and  the  logs  must 
be  transported  over  low  wet  lands  during  hot,  humid 
weather.  In  many  instances  the  logs  are  so  heavy — for 
example,  the  quebracho  logs  of  Argentina — tnat  a  raft 
is  made  of  lighter  logs  to  keep  the  heavier  logs  from 
sinking.  In  securing  the  resources  the  lumberman  is 
particularly  affected  by  climatic  conditions,  topography, 
location,  and  the  extent  and  nature  of  the  forest. 

4.  Hunting  and  Trapping  Activities 

In  sparsely  populated  regions  the  wild  animal  life  may 
be  abundant  and  varied.  As  an  area  becomes  densely 
populated  the  wild  animals  gradually  diminish.  Man 
determines  what  animals  shall  be  exterminated  and  what 
animals  shall  be  domesticated  and  permitted  to  multiply 
under  his  direction.  Wild  animals  furnish  food  for  the 
table  and   furs  and   skins  for  clothing. 

5.  Fishing  Activities 

The  ocean  currents  are  laden  with  multitudes  of 
microscopic  forms  which  are  an  appropriate  food  supply 
for  the  larger  aquatic  animals.    The  banks  or  shallower 


THE  PRACTICAL  NATURE  CF  GEOGRAPHY     n 

parts  of  the  ocean  are  the  best  fishing  grounds.  The 
Newfoundland  Banks  have  become  one  of  the  leading 
fishing  grounds  of  the  world.  Half  a  century  ago  many 
fish  were  caught  in  the  inland  waters  of  the  United 
States.  In  many  places  fishing  no  longer  is  profitable. 
Man  has  emptied  the  sewage  into  the  streams  to  such  an 
extent  that  fish  cannot  live,  or  he  has  fished  so  recklessly 
that  the  fish  have  been  almost  exterminated.  It  has  been 
necessary  to  establish  hatcheries  and  to  enact  laws  regard- 
ing fishing  and  the  pollution  of  streams.  Through  such 
constructive  measures  it  is  hoped  that  the  inland  waters 
will  again  contribute  substantially  to  the  nation's  food 
supply. 

6.  Mining  Activities 

Numerous  minerals  are  eagerly  sought.  While  almost 
all  minerals  have  a  wide  distribution,  only  in  restricted 
places  have  most  of  them  been  concentrated  in  quanti- 
ties sufficient  for  profitable  extraction.  Inventions  and 
discoveries  have  aided  in  the  use  of  low  grades  of  ore. 
When  prices  for  the  products  are  high  many  mines  can 
be  operated  that  must  be  closed  when  prices  are  low. 
Old  mines  are  being  exhausted  and  new  mines  are  being 
opened.  A  half  century  ago  Missouri  mnked  high  in  the 
production  of  iron  ore.  Large  quantities  of  ore  were 
secured  from  Iron  Mountain,  Pilot  Knob,  and  adjoining 
areas.  Carondelet,  now  a  part  of  St.  Louis,  was  an  active 
iron  and  steel  center.  Missouri  has  become  relatively 
unimportant  not  because  the  iron  ores  are  exhausted 
but  because  of  the  discovery  of  the  superior  ores  of 
Minnesota  and  because  of  the  excellent  transportation 


12  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

via  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  coke  produced  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. Recently  the  perfecting  of  a  process  that  will 
permit  the  making  of  a  high-grade  coke  from  Illinois 
coal  has  suggested  the  probability  that  the  St.  Louis 
industrial  area  will  again  become  a  great  iron  and  steel 
center.  Illinois  coke  will  be  used,  and  the  iron  ore  of 
Minnesota  will  be  brought  to  St.  Louis  via  the  Mississippi 
River.  Redistribution  of  people,  changing  needs  and 
wants,  changing  values,  and  inventions  and  discoveries 
are  constantly  bringing  about  a  readjustment  of  man  to 
the  mineral  resources. 

7.  Manufacturing  Activities 

In  the  preceding  lines  of  activity  the  influence  of  the 
physical  environment  was  marked.  An  adjustment  of 
man  in  order  that  he  might  secure  as  much  as  possible 
from  nature's  storehouses  was  emphasized.  In  the  manu- 
facture of  commodities  man  is  less  subject  to  the  chang- 
ing conditions  of  nature,  as  uncontrollable  variability  is 
less  pronounced.  While  the  environment  is  very  signifi- 
cant, the  viewpoint  shifts  from  the  influence  of  nature 
over  man  to  the  influence  of  man  over  the  raw  materials 
of  industry.  In  the  production  of  wheat  the  cycle  of 
growth  is  determined  by  nature,  and  man  simply  attempts 
to  make  the  environment  of  the  seed  and  of  the  plant  as 
favorable  as  possible.  In  the  manufacture  of  flour  from 
wheat  man  determines  the  various  steps  resulting  in  the 
changed  form  and  nature  of  the  wheat  grains.  Every 
manufacturing  industry  may  be  studied  profitably  from 
the  standpoint  of  (1)  machinery  used,  (2)  processes, 
(3)  sources  and  nature  of  raw  materials,  (4)  how  the 


THE  PRACTICAL  NATURE  OF  GEOGRAPHY      13 

raw  materials  are  secured  and  transported,  (5)  disposi- 
tion of  the  finished  product,  (6)  factors  under  the  con- 
trol of  man,  and  (7)  factors  subject  to  forces  outside  of 
man's  control.  In  every  instance  there  is  a  close  relation- 
ship between  the  activities  involved  in  securing  raw 
materials  and  the  manufacturing  industries.  This  inter- 
dependence should  be  emphasized. 

8.  Transporting  Activities 

The  resources  of  the  earth  are  irregularly  distributed. 
Man's  needs  and  wants  are  becoming  more  nearly  the 
same  everywhere.  Only  through  the  redistribution  of 
materials  is  it  possible  to  meet  this  broadening  demand. 
Transportation  by  land,  water,  and  air  has  been  improved 
to  such  an  extent  that  it  has  been  possible  to  produce 
fruits,  vegetables,  and  various  other  highly  perishable 
commodities  far  from  the  centers  of  consumption.  At  one 
time,  before  the  invention  of  refrigerators,  it  was  imprac- 
ticable to  ship  meats  from  Argentina  across  the  hot  belt 
to  Europe.  So  dependent  is  a  large  city,  as  New  York  or 
Chicago,  on  transportation  facilities  that,  should  the 
transportation  system  break  down,  actual  want  and  suffer- 
ing would  stare  the  people  in  the  face  inside  of  a  week. 
Nature  has  exerted  a  powerful  influence,  largely  topo- 
graphic, over  the  transportation  lines  not  only  through 
the  invitation  extended  to  use  her  oceans,  lakes,  and 
rivers  but  through  favorable  or  unfavorable  topographic 
conditions  affecting  the  constructing  of  railroads. 

The  explorers,  traders,  and  early  settlers  of  the  New 
World  penetrated  the  interior  by  means  of  the  water- 
ways.   Various    trails,    developed    supplemental    to    the 


14      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

waterways,  followed  the  most  favorable  topographic 
lines.  The  French  rapidly  occupied  large  parts  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  and  Mississippi  basins  because  of  the  rela- 
tive ease  with  which  they  could  travel  from  place  to  place 
on  the  numerous  navigable  streams.  When  a  substan- 
tial movement  of  people  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard  to 
the  interior  began,  the  Ohio  River,  with  its  navigable 
tributaries,  became  a  great  transportation  artery.  Numer- 
ous trails  across  the  Appalachian  barrier  were  established. 
The  famous  Wilderness  Road,  extending  through  Cum- 
berland Gap  to  the  fertile  lands  of  Kentucky,  was  used 
by  thousands  of  pioneers. 

In  the  early  construction  of  railroads  the  most  favor- 
able topographic  lines  were  followed.  As  the  need  for 
more  transportation  facilities  has  grown,  and  as  man  has 
learned  more  and  more  how  to  overcome  unfavorable 
topographic  barriers,  the  earlier  valley  roads  in  many 
instances  have  been  shortened  and  competitive  lines, 
piercing  the  mountains  by  means  of  tunnels  and  cuts  and 
crossing  the  valleys  by  means  of  trestles  and  fills,  have 
been  built  to  shorten  the  distances  between  important 
commercial  and  manufacturing  centers. 

Owing  to  the  advantages  of  rail  transportation,  supple- 
mented in  some  instances  by  unfair  competition,  the 
waterways  of  the  country  fell  into  relative  disuse.  As  the 
natural  resources  have  been  developed  the  railroads  have 
been  gradually  overtaxed,  which  has  led  to  a  revival  of 
interest  in  the  waterways,  and  numerous  steps  have  been 
taken  looking  toward  their  improvement.  The  transition 
from  the  dominant  use  of  the  waterways  to  the  dominant 
use   of   railroads,   and   the   present   tendency   toward   a 


THE  PRACTICAL  NATURE  OF  GEOGRAPHY     15 

maximum  use  of  both  railroads  and  waterways,  illus- 
trates how  a  gradual  increase  in  the  mastery  of  earth 
resources  may  bring  about  a  readjustment  of  transporta- 
tion routes. 


9.  Professional  Activities 

In  a  highly  developed  society  specialization  of  labor 
becomes  so  pronounced  that  there  are  many  people,  as 
lawyers,  doctors,  ministers,  and  teachers,  who  do  not 
secure  their  livelihood  directly  from  mother  earth,  or 
even  by  refashioning  the  raw  materials  of  industry,  or  by 
transporting  commodities.  Indirectly  such  people  depend 
on  earth  resources  by  serving  certain  needs  of  members 
of  the  social  group,  who  are  thus  dependent.  Such  activi- 
ties are  decidedly  social,  but  they  should  be  considered 
in  relation  to  the  basic  industries  on  which  they  depend. 
Many  of  the  problems  that  arise  among  professional  peo- 
ple, moreover,  require  geographic  knowledge  for  their 
interpretation. 

The  lawyer  may  consult  the  Weather  Bureau  records 
to  ascertain  the  condition  of  the  weather  at  the  time  of 
an  accident ;  the  doctor  may  make  a  study  of  different 
climates  with  respect  to  their  effects  on  various  diseases ; 
the  minister  may  study  the  geography  of  Palestine  in 
order  that  he  may  understand  the  environmental  condi- 
tions under  which  the  Jewish  and  Christian  religions  were 
evolved ;  and  the  teacher  may  make  a  study  of  the  air 
of  the  schoolroom — its  temperature,  its  humidity,  and 
temperature  and  humidity  variations — with  reference  to 
the  promotion  of  the  health  of  the  children. 


1 6  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

10.  Investment  Activities 

Under  modern  conditions  many  individuals  accumulate 
capital.  There  is  always  a  desire  to  invest  the  capital 
safely,  but  at  the  same  time  to  secure  a  high  rate  of 
interest.  The  more  doubtful  securities  frequently  bear 
the  highest  rates  of  interest.  Investors  frequently  are 
induced  by  unscrupulous  promoters  to  place  their  funds 
in  propositions  that  are  almost  inevitable  failures.  If  oil 
stock  is  before  the  investor,  a  knowledge  of  the  conditions 
under  which  oil  occurs  and  the  areal  distribution  of  prob- 
able oil-producing  territory  is  desirable.  If  swamp  lands 
are  to  be  reclaimed,  if  an  area  is  to  be  reforested,  if  a 
fruit  orchard  is  to  be  set  out,  or  if  a  pecan  grove  is  to  be 
established,  in  every  instance  the  individual  will  have 
a  better  background  for  investing  intelligently  if  he 
knows  the  physical  conditions  that  must  be  dealt  with 
in  carrying  out  the  project. 

ii.  Middleman  Activities 

A  large  part  of  our  population  is  concerned  with  the 
bridging  of  the  gap  between  producer  and  ultimate  con- 
sumer. The  merchant  should  purchase  goods  accord- 
ing to  varying  seasonal  demands.  He  displays  goods 
according  to  the  particular  needs.  He  must  draw  on  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  earth  for  his  stock.  He  buys  for  future 
or  for  immediate  needs  according  to  his  judgment  of 
future  prices.  He  should  have  an  intelligent  perspective 
of  his  line  back  to  the  raw  materials  and  the  conditions 
under  which  they  are  produced,  and  a  forward  perspec- 
tive to  the  consumers  and  their  probable  needs. 


THE  PRACTICAL  NATURE  OF  GEOGRAPHY     17 

RECREATIONAL  ACTIVITIES 

As  man's  mastery  of  the  earth  has  increased,  nature's 
forces  have  done  much  of  the  work  that  formerly  was 
done  with  human  energy.  The  number  of  hours  of  voca- 
tional work  for  man  has  decreased.  More  time  is  avail- 
able for  recreational  activities.  The  need  for  recreational 
grounds  close  to  nature,  where  many  pleasant  strolls 
amidst  beautiful  scenes  is  possible,  where  there  are 
animals  to  hunt  and  fish  to  catch,  and  where  there  is  no 
"maddening  crowd,"  is  acute.  Some  areas  are  valued 
because  of  their  low  temperatures,  because  of  cool  nights, 
because  of  the  stimulating  air  of  high  altitudes,  because 
of  the  cool,  salty  breeze,  or  because  of  the  inviting  surf. 
In  other  instances  the  recreational  needs  are  indirectly 
related  to  nature.  Numerous  games,  as  tennis,  baseball, 
and  golf,  are  played,  picture  shows  and  operas  are  patron- 
ized, and  social  intercourse  with  friends  is  welcomed.  In 
either  case — whether  it  is  nature  beckoning  to  man  or 
whether  it  is  man  refashioning  nature — the  relationship 
of  man  to  environing  nature  is  the  essential  viewpoint. 

A  grave  danger  at  the  present  time  lies  in  the  fact  that 
people  do  not  know  how  to  use  their  spare  time.  This 
danger  is  every  year  increasing  as  laborers  shorten  their 
working  hours.  The  teacher  has  numerous  opportunities 
to  teach  the  pupils  how  to  employ  their  leisure  time  desir- 
ably. The  geography  teacher  has  a  splendid  opportunity 
to  implant  a  love  for  industry,  an  interest  in  one's  fellow 
man,  a  desire  to  create,  a  passion  for  growing  things,  a 
liking  for  woods  and  fields  and  sky,  and  a  craving  for 
travel  and  travel  literature. 


1 8  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

POLITICAL  ACTIVITIES 

Every  citizen  should  be  actively  interested  in  the  politi- 
cal problems  and  the  social  policies  of  our  country.  An 
intelligent  voter  in  a  recent  bond-issue  election  in  St. 
Louis  required  considerable  geographic  knowledge  in  rela- 
tion to  the  proposed  improvement  of  the  River  des  Peres, 
in  relation  to  the  proposed  improvement  in  transporta- 
tion by  the  construction  of  an  approach  to  the  Free 
Bridge,  the  completion  of  the  Municipal  Railway,  and 
the  construction  of  a  second  municipal  pier. 

Our  legislators  must  pass  many  laws  bearing  on  con- 
servation of  natural  resources,  reclamation  of  arid  and 
swamp  lands,  the  disposition  of  public  lands,  the  improve- 
ment of  waterways,  and  commercial  relations  with  other 
countries.  In  the  long  run  the  legislators  will  vote  accord- 
ing to  public  sentiment.  It  is  the  function  of  government 
to  attempt  to  establish  and  preserve  desirable  social  rela- 
tions, but  these  relations  in  turn  are  inextricably  inter- 
woven with  the  economic  foundation  and  the  physical 
environment.  A  sound  public  policy  cannot  be  adopted 
for  our  natural  resources  until  the  voters  have  an  intelli- 
gent conception  of  constructive  measures  that  should  be 
enacted.  Consequently  a  knowledge  of  geography  is  a 
necessary  preparation  for  the  exercise  of  effective 
political    citizenship. 

What  is  geography?  Geography  is  concerned  with 
the  discovery  and  interpretation  of  the  relations  between 
the  physical  environment  and  life  forms.  The  physical 
environment,  if  geographically  considered,  includes  the 


THE  PRACTICAL  NATURE  OF  GEOGRAPHY     19 

controls  of  nature  that  take  place  largely  apart  from  the 
dominating  intellectual  control  of  man.  The  more  impor- 
tant controls  are  location,  area,  topography,  drainage, 
structure,  climate,  plant  forms,  and  animal  forms.  Man's 
response  to  the  laws  of  nature,  whether  he  is  a  mere  slave 
to  them  or  whether  he  directs  the  forces  of  nature  along 
certain  channels,  is  decidedly  geographic.  The  reaction 
of  man  on  man,  when  the  intellect  exercises  the  dominat- 
ing control,  is  less  characteristically  geographic,  although 
geographic  factors  are  basic  even  in  highly  socialized 
situations. 

Place  geography  the  unifying  factor.  All  activities  of 
man  are  fundamentally  geographic,  and  there  is  a  geo- 
graphic viewpoint  for  every  subject  and  for  every  topic. 
The  subject  of  geography  gives  the  student  the  geographic 
viewpoint  of  life.  If  the  province  of  geography  was 
merely  to  indicate  the  geographic  influences  that  help  to 
explain  other  subjects,  there  would  be  no  general  need  for 
geography  apart  from  other  subjects,  although  a  person 
specializing  on  the  geographic  side  of  subjects  undoubt- 
edly could  aid  materially  in  securing  the  proper  emphasis 
of  geographic  factors.  The  organizing  viewpoint  for  the 
subject  of  geography  is  the  relationship  of  life  forms  and 
the  physical  environment  in  such  a  way  that  the  sum  total 
of  physical  factors  is  seen  functioning  as  an  interacting 
complex  on  the  life  forms,  which  also  are  reacting  accord- 
ing to  their  particular  tendencies. 

The  organization  of  the  geographic  field  is  focused 
about  what  may  be  variously  termed  place,  locational, 
areal,  or  regional  geography — not  mere  place  geography 
in  the  sense  of  location  on  the  earth's  surface,  but  places 


20  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

located  relationally  in  such  a  way  that  the  significant 
interrelationships  are  discovered  and  interpreted.  The 
old  sailor  geography,  therefore,  was  a  natural  step  point- 
ing in  the  direction  of  the  relational,  interpretative 
geography    of    the    present. 

Suggestions  for  Further  Study : 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  occupations  in  which  your  friends  are 
engaged  and  indicate  the  various  ways  that  they  serve  each  other. 
Show  the  fundamental  relationship  of  all  these  occupations  to 
earth  resources. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  recreations  in  which  you  have  engaged  and  note 
the  physical  influences  involved  in  each  instance. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  political  issues  of  present  importance  and  sug- 
gest any  physical  or  earth  influences  that  may  be  involved. 

4.  Make  a  list  of  the  raw  materials  that  have  been  used  (a)  in 
the  construction  of  the  building  in  which  you  live,  (b)  in  the  manu- 
facture of  the  clothing  that  you  possess,  (c)  in  the  preparations  of  a 
meal.  Indicate  the  probable  source  of  origin  of  each  material  and 
suggest  the  various  vocations  that  were  involved  in  making  the 
material  available  in  its  present  form. 

5.  Imagine  yourself  the  manager  of  some  economic  enterprise  and 
indicate  the  various  ways  that  geography  may  affect  your  business. 

6.  A  recent  educational  article  appeared  entitled  "The  Recon- 
struction of  the  Course  of  Study  on  a  Social  Basis."  Would  the 
expression  "The  Social  Reconstruction  of  the  Course  of  Study  on 
a  Physical  Basis"  more  nearly  represent  the  correct  viewpoint? 

Selected  References: 

Dodge,  R.  E.,  and  Kirchwey,  C.  B.    The  Teaching  of  Geography, 

chap.  i.  pp.  I-l  5. 
Dryer,    C.    R.    "What    is   Geography?"  Journal  of  Geography 

(1905),  Vol.  IV,  pp.   34p'-3r,°- 
Fairbanks,   If.  W.    "A   New   Definition  of  Geography,"  Journal 

of  Geography  (1919),  Vol.  XVIII,  pp.  [85-188. 


THE  PRACTICAL  NATURE  OF  GEOGRAPHY     21 

Fenneman,  N.  M.  "The  Circumference  of  Geography,"  Geographi- 
cal Review  (1919),  Vol.  VII,  pp.  168-176.  Synopsis  in  Journal 
of  Geography  ( 1 9 1 9),  Vol.  XVIII,  pp.  148-150. 

Goode,  J.  Paul.  "  The  Practical  Value  of  Geography,"  American 
Schoolmaster  (1920),  Vol.  LIX,  pp.  236-244. 

McMurry,  Charles.  Special  Method  in  Geography,  chap,  i, 
pp.  1-14. 

Packard,  L.  O.  "  Geography  and  Reconstruction  in  Education," 
Journal  of  Geography  (191 9),  Vol.   XVIII,   pp.   24-28. 

Peattie,  Roderick.  "The  New  Geography,"  Educational  Review 
(1919),  Vol.  LVIII,  pp.  420-430. 

Sutherland,  William.  The  Teaching  of  Geography,  chap,  i, 
pp.  17-27;  chap,  vii,  pp.  95-109. 

Thomas,  Helen  Goss.  "The  New  Geography,"  Educational 
Review  (1920),  Vol.  LIX,  pp.  236-244. 

Whitbeck,  R.  H.  "  The  Need  of  Broad-Gauge  Courses  in  Geog- 
raphy," School  Review  (191 8),  Vol.  XXVI,  pp.  199-204. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  EVOLUTION  OF  GEOGRAPHIC  KNOWLEDGE 

EMPHASIZING  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF 

CIVILIZATIONS 

The  modern  world  different  from  the  primitive  world. 
Primitive  man  was  largely  a  creature  of  his  immediate 
environment.  He  subsisted  on  the  accidental  products  of 
nature  and  only  incidentally  affected  his  environment.  If 
nature  was  kind  he  prospered ;  if  nature  was  cruel  he 
suffered.  Today,  what  a  marked  contrast!  Man  has 
learned  how  to  make  the  forces  of  nature  serve  him,  how 
to  increase  the  production  of  desirable  plants  and  animals, 
how  to  extract  minerals  from  the  earth,  how  to  minimize 
the  ravages  of  disease,  and  how  to  refashion  and  redis- 
tribute the  resources  of  the  earth  according  to  his  varying 
needs  and  wants. 

Man's  relations  to  his  physical  environment.  The 
assumption  is  frequently  made  that  mind  plays  upon  mind 
and  determines  man's  relations  to  his  physical  environ- 
ment. This  emphasis  of  the  influence  of  mind  over  nature 
tends  to  thrust  into  the  background  the  overwhelming  in- 
fluence of  the  physical  environment  over  man  not  only 
in  stimulating  him  to  think  but  also  in  influencing  his 
decisions.  Even  in  the  instances  that  man  seemingly  has 
risen  superior  to  his  environment,  the  previous  physical 
environment  has  been  prominent  in  developing  the  needed 
intellectual  ability.    Not  the  least  fascinating  of  topics  is 


EVOLUTION  OF  GEOGRAPHIC  KNOWLEDGE     23 

the  story  of  the  constant  stimulus  and  control  exerted  by 
nature  in  making  possible  the  wonderful  advancement  of 
man. 

Beginnings  of  civilization  in  favorable  regions.  It  is 
probable  that  the  human  race,  while  in  a  low  state  of 
development,  was  widely  distributed  over  the  earth's  sur- 
face. The  commission  of  a  crime,  the  presence  of  power- 
ful enemies,  a  curiosity  to  explore,  a  famine,  the  pressure 
of  increasing  population,  and  the  confusion  of  travelers 
concerning  the  way  are  some  of  the  factors  that  might 
have  induced  people  to  brave  the  unknown  dangers  of  sea, 
desert,  plateau,  and  mountain  in  an  endeavor  to  escape 
punishment  or  oppression  or  to  better  their  status. 

Since  nature  rarely  forces  man  to  act,  an  important 
civilization  would  scarcely  have  developed  in  every  favor- 
able area.  In  those  areas  presenting  the  most  favorable 
environments,  however,  other  conditions  being  equal,  we 
should  expect  to  find  the  most  rapid  development.  Among 
the  factors  that  influenced  human  evolution  are  (1)  loca- 
tion, (2)  protection,  (3)  area,  (4)  soil,  and  (5)  the 
necessity   for  the   working  out   of  group   projects. 

LOCATION 

In  low  latitudes,  amid  the  favorable  conditions  of  high 
temperatures  and  heavy  rainfall,  a  great  variety  and 
abundance  of  both  plant  and  animal  forms  are  found 
throughout  the  year.  The  climate  is  enervating,  numerous 
diseases  sap  the  vitality  of  man,  insects  are  annoying,  and 
nature  is  so  prodigal  in  supplying  the  needs  of  man  that 
the  necessity  of  taking  thought  for  the  morrow — or  at 


24      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

least  the  stimulus  for  such  thought,  and  particularly  for 
an  extended  period  of  time — is  all  but  eliminated.  Where 
man's  fundamental  needs  were  cared  for  readily  and  con- 
tinuously, and  where  the  control  of  prodigal  nature  was 
extraordinarily  difficult,  there  was  little  stimulus  to  great 
mental  activity.  In  the  higher  latitudes,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  low  temperatures  and  meager  rainfall  are 
unfavorable  for  the  existence,  in  the  same  variety  and 
abundance,  of  life  forms  so  common  in  equatorial  regions. 
Nature  is  almost  parsimonious  in  her  gifts  to  man.  Be- 
cause of  this  inhospitable  environment  and  the  difficulties 
of  improving  it,  the  energies  of  man  are  consumed  in 
providing  for  a  bare  existence.  In  neither  equatorial  nor 
polar  latitudes,  therefore,  are  conditions  very  favorable. 

In  dry  desert  regions,  with  an  inadequate  water  supply, 
not  only  are  the  problems  involved  too  great  to  be  solved 
by  man  emerging  from  a  primitive  state,  but  even  today 
these  fields  remain  largely  unconquered  by  man. 

If  a  region  existed  in  which  the  climate  for  a  part  of 
the  year  was  favorable  for  an  abundance  of  life  forms, 
followed  by  a  period  of  drought  due  to  lack  of  rainfall  or 
proper  temperatures  not  too  long  or  severe,  the  necessity 
during  the  period  of  plenty  of  laying  by  supplies  for  the 
period  of  want  would  have  stimulated  man  to  exercise 
forethought.  The  beginnings  of  civilization,  therefore, 
might  be  expected  in  intermediate  latitudes  (where  the 
growing  period  alternates  with  the  winter  season  )  or  in  an 
area  (as  in  parts  of  the  trade-wind  deserts)  where  for  a 
part  of  the  year  rainfall  is  sufficient  or  irrigation  is  pos- 
sible. Since  the  land  mass  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere 
in   intermediate  latitudes  is  very  limited,  while  in  the 


EVOLUTION  OF  GEOGRAPHIC  KNOWLEDGE      25 

Northern  Hemisphere  it  extends  over  large  areas,  the 
chances  were  in  favor  of  more  centers  of  civilization  de- 
veloping in  the  Northern  Hemisphere. 

PROTECTION 

A  group  of  people  surrounded  by  other  groups,  with  no 
natural  physical  protection,  may  be  forced  to  devote  too 
much  of  its  energy  to  protective  purposes.  Adequate 
physical  protection  leaves  the  group  free  to  devote  all 
its  energies  to  internal  development.  The  sea,  the  desert, 
and  large  plateaus  have  been  the  three  very  formidable 
barriers. 

AREA 

The  area  should  be  large  enough  to  permit  an  impor- 
tant group  development,  but  not  so  large  that  the  energies 
are  scattered. 

SOIL 

Excellent  soil  which  will  encourage  agricultural  rather 
than  pastoral  activities  is  necessary. 

GROUP  PROJECTS 

If  there  is  occasion  for  working  out  group  projects  not 
too  difficult,  as  irrigating  systems,  the  social  development 
may  be  greatly  stimulated. 

The  valley  civilizations.  The  Nile  valley  met  the  con- 
ditions necessary  to  encourage  a  beginning.  The  valley — 
a  long,  narrow  depression  five  to  ten  miles  in  width — was 
large  enough  to  support  many  people,  although  it  was  not 


26      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

so  large  but  that  a  community  of  interests  was  readily- 
established.  The  valley  at  one  time  was  much  deeper,  but 
conditions  had  changed  so  that  a  large  quantity  of  fine 
material,  giving  rise  to  an  excellent  soil,  was  deposited. 
One  of  the  major  sources  of  the  Nile  is  in  the  lake  region 
near  the  equator,  where  heavy  rains  are  characteristic  of 
the  whole  year.  The  flow  of  the  Nile,  therefore,  is  con- 
stant. Another  large  tributary,  the  Blue  Nile,  originates 
in  the  plateau  of  Abyssinia,  where  the  rainfall  is  heavy 
but  seasonal.  At  the  time  of  year  that  the  greatly  in- 
creased volume  is  added  to  the  White  Nile,  the  lower  Nile 
overflows  its  banks,  depositing  a  fine  mantle  of  rich  soil 
on  the  flood  plain  and  providing  the  water  necessary  for 
crop  production.  The  valley  is  depressed  with  reference 
to  the  barrier  desert  lands  on  the  east  and  the  west,  which 
results  in  a  sharp  transition  from  verdure  to  barrenness. 
On  the  south  not  only  did  desert  conditions  prevail,  but 
the  ruggedness  of  the  country  and  dangerous  rapids  in  the 
river  prevented  ready  contact  with  people  to  the  south. 
On  the  north  lay  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  a  formidable 
barrier  to  man  just  beginning  to  emerge  from  very  primi- 
tive conditions.  The  temperature  was  warm  throughout 
the  year,  but  the  rainfall  was  negligible.  Dependent  on 
the  annual  flood  of  the  Nile,  the  people  found  it  neces- 
sary to  exercise  forethought  in  storing  up  foods  for  the 
period  of  the  year  when  agriculture  was  at  a  minimum. 
In  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valleys  similar  conditions 
existed,  but  in  a  varying  degree.  There  were  numerous 
small  areas  separated  from  other  parts  of  the  valley  by 
swamps,  too  wet  for  roads  but  too  dry  for  boats.  With 
increasing   need   for   land   the   swamps  were   gradually 


EVOLUTION  OF  GEOGRAPHIC  KNOWLEDGE     27 

drained,  and  with  the  barriers  removed  the  smaller  com- 
munities were  cemented  into  a  larger  group.  While  a 
winter  precipitation  was  dominant,  the  melting  snows  of 
the  higher  tributaries  favorably  affected  the  summer  flow. 
Unlike  the  Nile,  the  valleys  were  not  depressed  much 
below  the  adjoining  areas,  which  facilitated  irrigation. 
Neither  were  the  adjoining  desert  conditions  quite  so  pro- 
nounced, but  a  sparse  pastoral  population  adjoined  the 
valley  population  and  formed  a  slender  thread  of  contact 
with  other  peoples.  The  people,  therefore,  were  not 
isolated  to  the  same  extent  as  the  people  of  Egypt,  and 
foreign  influences  were  correspondingly  greater.  In  times 
of  relative  scarcity  elsewhere  the  rich  valleys  were  always 
a  tempting  prize. 

The  Assyrians,  living  in  an  area  with  very  restricted 
opportunities,  naturally  looked  longingly  on  the  better- 
favored  parts  of  the  valley,  and,  spurred  on  by  physical 
necessity  and  later  by  a  desire  to  secure  those  things 
which  nature  had  taught  them  were  valuable,  engaged 
in  a  policy  of  conquest  until  much  of  southwestern 
Asia  was  under  their  control.  Their  conquests,  how- 
ever, were  effected  and  maintained  by  force,  and  as  soon 
as  opportunity  offered,  the  centralized  government  was 
overthrown. 

Contact  between  people  of  the  Nile  and  people  of 
Mesopotamia  seems  to  have  been  established  through  the 
accidental  meeting  of  parties  seeking  for  copper  or  other 
valuable  materials  in  the  intervening  desert.  The  ex- 
change of  materials  and  ideas  resulting  was  a  mutual 
benefit  in  stimulating  still  further  development.  Be- 
tween   the    two    civilizations    ways    determined    largely 


28      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

by  topographic  and  desert  conditions  were  discovered. 
The  narrowest  part  of  the  desert  lay  between  Egypt  and 
the  coastal  plain  of  Palestine.  The  people  of  Palestine — 
particularly  those  of  the  coast  and  of  Samaria  and  Lower 
Galilee  living  along  the  most  important  of  the  ways — 
naturally  were  stimulated  by  contact  with  the  caravans. 

The  Mediterranean  civilization.  It  can  hardly  be  a 
coincidence  that  the  Phoenicians  began  the  commercial 
conquest  of  the  Mediterranean  from  its  eastern  end.  The 
stimulating  influence  of  the  fluvial  civilizations,  with  their 
moderate  utilization  of  rivers  as  transportation  carriers, 
may  have  been  significant.  The  coast  of  the  Phoenicians 
was  irregular,  offering  numerous  landing  places  for  small 
vessels,  the  adjoining  mountains  had  meager  resources, 
while  the  sea  beckoned.  The  numerous  islands  of  the 
eastern  Mediterranean  were  stepping-stones,  and  the  cau- 
tious mariners  crept  from  place  to  place  along  the  coasts. 
Gradually  the  Phoenicians  became  acquainted  with  the 
various  parts  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  a  considerable 
commerce  was  developed.  As  the  Mediterranean  became 
better  known  and  as  other  groups  of  people  became  organ- 
ized and  advanced,  the  center  of  Mediterranean  influence 
tended  to  shift  to  the  central  part — first  to  Greece  and 
later  to  Rome.  Further  acquaintance  with  the  sea  and 
improvements  in  the  art  of  navigation  enabled  the  seamen 
to  disregard  the  coasts  and  to  sail  directly  across  the  sea 
from  one  part  to  another. 

Not  only  were  the  Romans,  in  part  because  of  their 
central  location  and  relatively  large  body  of  compact, 
desirable  land,  able  to  control  the  Mediterranean,  but 
through  their  extensive  construction  of  good  roads  they 


EVOLUTION  OF  GEOGRAPHIC  KNOWLEDGE     29 

were  able  to  exert  a  unifying  influence  on  large  land 
areas.  It  was  the  individual  initiative  and  ability  of  the 
Macedonian,  Philip  the  Great,  that  enabled  him  to  con- 
quer much  of  the  known  world,  but  it  was  the  general 
ability  of  the  Romans  that  enabled  them  for  a  long  time 
to  control  the  Mediterranean  and,  in  addition,  to  extend 
their  operations  northward  through  the  Rhone  gateway 
until  all  of  western  Europe  even  unto  England  was  under 
their  control. 

As  the  geographic  factors  began  to  function  differently, 
the  Roman  Empire  gradually  declined.  The  eastern  part 
of  the  Mediterranean,  by  reason  of  distance  from  the 
ocean,  earlier  civilization,  numerous  islands,  and  relations 
to  Asia,  was  different  from  the  western  section.  Western 
Europe  was  broken  up  into  numerous  groups  mainly 
determined  by  topographic  conditions.  From  the  large 
plains  of  Eurasia  to  the  northeast  restless  hordes  threat- 
ened the  Empire.  Necessity  for  defense  had  influenced 
the  martial  ability  of  the  Romans ;  with  the  enemies  far 
removed  to  the  northeast  the  Romans  lost  much  of  this 
ability.  With  the  breaking  up  of  the  Empire,  naturally 
the  strongest  capital  was  established  at  Constantinople 
nearer  the  danger  points. 

The  Romans  had  exerted  a  powerful  influence  on 
numerous  units  of  people,  each  of  which  had  been  dis- 
tinctively civilized.  With  the  removal  of  the  strong, 
centralized  government  western  and  southern  Europe  con- 
tained numerous  groups  which,  struggling  among  them- 
selves, moved  in  the  direction  of  relative  stability.  The 
varied  physical  features  gave  rise  to  varied  adjustments 
which  tended  to  develop  and  maintain  distinct  groups  of 


30      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

people,  but  at  the  same  time  the  various  groups,  through 
interchange  of  ideas,  learned  from  each  other. 

The  closing  of  the  route  to  the  Orient.  In  the  mean- 
time a  wild,  courageous,  cruel,  aggressive  people — the 
product  of  their  environment  in  the  semiarid  steppes  of 
Asia — overswept  southwestern  Asia  and  intercepted  the 
profitable  commerce  that  had  been  carried  on  between 
Europe  and  Asia.  To  these  people  the  Mohammedan  re- 
ligion, advocating  religious  conquest  by  the  sword,  made 
a  strong  appeal.  Under  their  fanatical  activities  south- 
western Asia  was  rapidly  conquered,  and  a  spur  extended 
eastward  to  India  and,  creeping  along  the  southern  shore 
of  the  Mediterranean,  they  even  occupied  the  southern 
part  of  Spain. 

The  ordinary  routes  to  Asia  were  so  firmly  held  that  the 
commercial  cities  of  Italy,  whose  greatness  had  been  due 
to  the  commerce  with  Asia  carried  on  by  way  of  the  Red 
Sea,  Mesopotamia,  or  the  Caspian  Sea,  declined,  and  all 
Europe  was  affected.  Naturally  the  question  persistently 
arose,  Is  there  no  other  practicable  route  to  the  Indies? 
To  the  south  was  the  great  land  mass  of  Africa,  which 
popular  superstition  had  bounded  on  the  south  by  a  great 
river.  Perhaps  it  would  be  possible  to  sail  around  this 
land  mass  and  thus  reach  the  Indies.  From  time  to  time 
various  thinkers  had  expressed  their  belief  in  the  sphe- 
ricity of  the  earth.  If  this  were  true,  the  mysterious  Atlan- 
tic to  the  west  of  Europe  also  might  offer  another  route  to 
the  Orient.  There  had  been  no  adequate  testing  of  these 
theories  because  ( i )  man  had  not  advanced  sufficiently  to 
deal  with  the  more  difficult  problems  involved,  and  (2)  in 


EVOLUTION  OF  GEOGRAPHIC  KNOWLEDGE     31 

the  course  of  human  evolution  the  Mediterranean,  west- 
ern Europe,  and  eastward  relations  with  the  Orient  had 
absorbed  most  of  the  energies.  At  the  time  that  the 
hordes  were  pouring  out  of  central  Asia,  however,  not  only 
was  there  a  need  of  finding  some  other  way  to  the  Orient, 
but  the  advancement  that  had  been  made  was  sufficient 
to  stimulate  explorations. 

It  was  not  a  coincidence  that  the  two  countries  of  the 
Iberian  Peninsula  made  the  most  earnest  attempts  to  find 
these  new  ways.  On  one  side  of  this  peninsula  was  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  which  was  well  known ;  on  another 
side  was  the  Atlantic,  with  its  more  difficult  problems. 
The  people  of  the  peninsula  came  under  the  influence  of 
both  bodies  of  water,  and  the  experiences  with  the  one 
were  used  in  the  conquest  of  the  other.  The  Portuguese, 
pushing  southward  and  encouraged  by  the  gold,  ivory,  and 
slaves  secured  from  Africa,  finally  rounded  the  continent 
and  began  a  profitable  trade  with  the  Orient. 

The  New  World.  The  discovery  of  the  New  World 
and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  route  to  India  nerved  men 
for  still  greater  accomplishments,  and  Magellan  con- 
clusively established  the  unity  of  the  oceans.  The  Portu- 
guese route  to  the  Orient  alone  was  practicable.  The 
Spaniards,  finding  the  route  to  the  Indies  too  long,  eagerly 
explored  the  New  World  for  gold  and  silver.  Taking 
advantage  of  the  northeast  trades,  they  discovered  and 
occupied  islands  of  the  West  Indies,  from  which  bases 
the  mainland  was  explored.  Expeditions  penetrated  far 
into  the  interior  of  North  America  without  discovering 
valuable  products.    Southward  the  Spaniards  were  more 


32      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

successful.  In  the  tropical  highlands  of  Mexico  and  South 
America  the  natives,  stimulated  by  a  favorable  environ- 
ment, had  developed  a  high  type  of  Indian  civilization. 
Precious  metals  had  been  concentrated  in  these  moun- 
tainous regions,  and  the  Indians  had  accumulated  large 
quantities. 

The  Spaniards,  with  their  superior  control  of  energy, 
were  able  quickly  to  conquer  the  Indians.  The  Andes 
Mountains  became  a  center  of  operations  because  the 
climate  was  more  favorable  than  in  the  hot,  humid  low- 
lands adjoining,  and  because  the  precious  metals  were  in 
the  mountainous  sections.  Gradually  the  Spaniards  came 
to  exercise  a  dominant  control  over  the  whole  of  South 
America  with  the  exception  of  Brazil.  The  Portuguese 
had  sailed  east,  the  Spaniards  west,  and  the  Pope  in 
separating  the  east  from  the  west  had  drawn  the  line  in 
such  a  way  that  Brazil  belonged  to  Portugal.  Latin 
America,  relatively,  has  progressed  slowly,  in  part  as  a 
result  of  unfavorable  physical  conditions — particularly 
climate  and  dependent  factors.  In  those  small  areas  with 
climatic  conditions  similar  to  those  of  the  United  States 
the  greatest  progress  has  been  made. 

Progress  in  Eurasia.  The  other  countries  of  western 
Europe  became  interested  in  the  use  of  the  Atlantic.  The 
hinterland  of  the  Portuguese  was  limited,  and  spices  had 
to  be  distributed  from  other  ports.  The  Rhine  offered  a 
passage  into  the  heart  of  Europe.  Holland  and  Belgium 
commanded  its  mouth.  The  Dutch,  encouraged  by 
numerous  islands  and  shallow  seas,  engaged  in  the  fish- 
ing industry.  Ear  from  the  seat  of  Roman  Catholic  in- 
fluence, the  Dutch  also  quickly  had  become  Protestants. 


EVOLUTION  OF  GEOGRAPHIC  KNOWLEDGE     33 

The  Spaniards  with  their  gold  had  purchased  materials 
and  engaged  men.  Columbus  was  an  Italian ;  Magellan 
was  a  Portuguese.  The  Dutch,  to  a  greater  extent,  used 
their  own  energy  and  soon  had  secured  much  of  the  trade 
that  the  Portuguese  had  initiated.  Holland  was  too  small, 
however,  to  withstand  the  competition  of  larger  countries 
with  similar  advantages. 

Paris,  strategically  located  with  respect  to  the  water- 
ways of  France  and  at  the  narrowing  of  the  Seine  where 
the  Norsemen  were  repelled,  became  the  influential  center 
of  France.  The  policies  of  France  were  swayed  in  part 
by  the  invitation  to  expand  eastward,  in  part  by  the 
influence  of  the  sea.  This  division  of  interest,  while  lead- 
ing to  the  downfall  of  the  sea  power  of  Holland,  so  weak- 
ened France  that  she  was  unable  to  compete  successfully 
for  ocean  power  against  Britain,  whose  insular  location 
made  her  interest  in  the  sea  supreme.  Diversity  of  physi- 
cal features  gave  rise  to  different  groups,  but  the  insular 
unit  finally  prevailed,  and  Britain  gained  the  ocean 
control. 

In  the  meantime  agricultural  communities  were  estab- 
lished in  the  forests  of  Russia,  and  gradually,  with  an 
effective  political  organization,  they  were  able  to  overrun 
the  adjoining  steppes.  Russia  had  aspirations  to  secure 
better  seaports,  which  has  brought  her  into  difficulties 
with  other  countries,  as  Sweden,  Japan,  England,  and 
Turkey. 

Modern  Germany  has  a  central  location  and  diversified 
features.  It  has  constantly  been  affected  by  different 
groups  pressing  in  on  various  sides.  Through  a  strong,  cen- 
tralized government  Germany  has  effected  an  enormous 


34      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

saving  of  energy,  the  diversion  of  which  to  war  purposes 
has  resulted  in  the  present  downfall  of  Germany  and  her 
allies. 

Europe,  influenced  by  its  diversity  of  physical  features 
and  irregular  outline,  had  several  important  population 
centers.  These  groups  of  people,  without  the  improved 
transportation  facilities  which  permitted  the  coherent 
development  of  the  United  States,  and  without  the  large 
simple  natural  units,  developed  in  relative  isolation.  Dif- 
ferent groups  developed  varying  ideals,  customs,  and 
languages.  In  the  course  of  time,  through  the  fortunes 
of  war,  migrations,  assimilations,  and  marriages,  the 
political  units  came  to  differ  widely  from  the  ethnographic 
units.  Poland,  for  example,  against  the  wishes  of  the 
Poles,  was  arbitrarily  divided  among  the  countries  of 
Russia,  Austria-Hungary,  and  Germany.  In  spite  of  the 
political  changes  the  different  groups  of  people  tended  to 
preserve  their  identities  and  to  hope  for  a  restoration  of 
their  political  powers. 

With  the  outbreak  of  the  war  political  and  racial 
antagonisms  were  intensified.  With  the  completion  of 
the  war  an  attempt  was  made  to  rearrange  the  boundary 
lines  of  the  countries  and  to  establish  new  countries, 
primarily  along  ethnic  and  physical  lines.  Each  of  the 
groups  of  people  occupied  some  distinctive  natural  region, 
although  in  the  absence,  in  many  instances,  of  pronounced 
topographic  barriers  the  groups  had  intermingled  on  the 
margins  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the  determination  of 
the  most  desirable  boundary  lines  extraordinarily  difficult. 

The  Poles  and  the  Magyars  occupy  river  basins ;  the 
Austrians,  the  Czechoslovaks,  and  the  Jugoslavs  occupy 


EVOLUTION  OF  GEOGRAPHIC  KNOWLEDGE     35 

mountainous  areas.  Under  modern  conditions  natural 
boundary  lines  are  of  minor  significance.  Temporarily 
the  national  spirit  of  the  various  groups  has  been  greatly 
intensified,  and  numerous  disputes  have  arisen.  Each 
group  needs  to  recognize  the  natural  region  basis  for  its 
political  independence  and  to  develop  its  unit  in  an  effi- 
cient manner.  Instead  of  coveting  its  neighbor's  terri- 
tory, each  group  needs  to  arrange  for  an  exchange  of 
commodities  and  ideas  that  will  be  mutually  beneficial. 
Unless  the  various  groups  can  arrange  an  economic  and 
social  balance  among  themselves,  further  dissensions  and 
conflicts  are  almost  inevitable  unless  some  superior  organ- 
ization can  restrain  them.  The  problems  of  Europe  sug- 
gest that  the  social  and  political  groups  of  the  world  are 
not  yet  in  equilibrium  either  with  respect  to  the  economic 
resources  of  the  world  or  with  respect  to  each  other. 

Chinese  civilization  was  cradled  in  the  Wei  valley  of 
the  Hwang.  It  gradually  spread  down  the  valley  to  the 
great  Hwang  and,  helped  by  the  uniformity  of  physical 
conditions  and  opportunities,  overspread  a  large  area, 
giving  rise  to  similar  adaptations  everywhere.  In  India, 
subject  to  wave  after  wave  of  people  coming  by  sea  from 
the  East  Indies  and  by  land  through  the  passes  of  the 
northwest,  there  are  many  physical  units,  and  many  local 
governments  have  been  formed,  capable  of  being  united 
only  by  some  outside  power,  as  Great  Britain. 

The  United  States  dependent  upon  natural  resources 
and  upon  other  countries.  Varying  types  of  civilization 
have  developed  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  In  each 
case  earth  influences  have  been  marked,  although  with  in- 
creasing development  these  influences  have  factored  both 


36      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

directly  and  indirectly,  giving  rise  to  very  complex  situa- 
tions difficult  to  interpret.  The  wonderful  progress  of  the 
United  States  has  been  possible,  in  part  because  of  the 
successive  racial  experiences  in  Egypt,  Babylonia,  Pales- 
tine, the  Mediterranean  Sea  region,  and  western  Europe ; 
in  part  by  reason  of  the  large  topographic  provinces,  the 
varied  and  abundant  resources,  and  the  favorable  climate. 
Favored  by  nature  as  much  as  northwest  Europe,  Amer- 
ica, profiting  from  experience,  has  had  less  economic 
and  social  machinery  to  scrap  and,  taking  advantage  of 
latest  inventions,  has  forged  ahead.  America  owes  much 
to  nature  and  to  other  people.  Is  it  not  a  part  of  the 
divine  plan  that  in  the  evolution  of  the  human  race  Amer- 
ica, in  turn,  with  a  perfected  experience,  shall  help  other 
countries  to  develop  and  shall  lead  the  world  through  a 
perfecting  of  parts,  through  an  exchange  of  commodities 
and  ideas,  and  through  a  sympathetic  understanding  to 
a  higher  level  ? 

The  wonderful  future.  Gradually  the  earth  has  come 
to  be  related  as  one  organic  whole  through  the  discov- 
eries and  inventions  that  have  been  made.  "It  may  be 
said  that  in  its  widest  sense  on  its  material  side  history 
is  the  story  of  man's  increasing  ability  to  control  energy."5 
While  remarkable  advances  have  been  made,  the  geo- 
graphic conquest  has  just  begun.  There  are  large  areas  of 
the  earth  that  man  uses  but  little ;  for  example,  the  great 
tropical  forests,  the  cold  deserts,  and  the  hot  deserts.  If 
man  can  control  or  mitigate  the  effects  of  adverse  fac- 
tors in  such  regions  as  the  Amazon  and  Kongo  basins, 
there  may  in  time  be  a  readjustment  of  populations,  since 

1  James  Fairgrieve,  Geography  and  World  Power,  pp.  3-4. 


EVOLUTION  OF  GEOGRAPHIC  KNOWLEDGE    37 

plant  and  animal  life,  the  food  of  man,  are  found  in  great 
abundance.  Large  populations  may  be  concentrated  in 
now  barren  desert  wastes  if  an  economical  way  can  be 
found  of  utilizing  and  storing  the  sun's  energy.  It  seems 
probable  that  the  human  race  is  on  one  of  the  steepest 
slopes  of  evolution,  and  the  mind  is  awed  with  wonder  at 
the  potential  discoveries  and  inventions  of  the  future, 
which  may  make  man  more  nearly  "lord  of  creation." 

Suggestions  for  Further  Study : 

1.  Imagine  yourself  a  person  with  your  present  physical  body  but 
with  no  more  intelligence  than  is  possessed  by  some  animal  with 
which  you  are  acquainted.  Indicate  the  hardships  that  you  might 
experience  in  protecting  yourself  and  in  supplying  your  needs. 

2.  On  an  outline  map  of  Eurasia  indicate  the  routes  connecting 
the  Mediterranean  countries  of  Europe  with  the  Orient  before  the 
discovery  of  the  Portuguese  route. 

3.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  world  indicate  the  Portuguese  route 
by  way  of  South  Africa,  and  the  Spanish  route  by  way  of  the  Strait 
of  Magellan.  Imagine  yourself  with  Vasco  da  Gama  on  his  voyage 
from  Portugal  to  India  or  with  Magellan  on  his  trip  around  the 
world  and  describe  probable  incidents  of  the  journey. 

4.  Is  the  realignment  of  the  political  boundary  lines  of  Europe  a 
retrogressive  or  a  progressive  step  in  relation  to  civilization  ? 

5.  In  the  light  of  the  development  of  civilizations  and  inequalities 
in  the  distribution  of  earth  resources,  what  should  be  the  attitude  of 
every  civilized  being  toward  the  establishment  of  a  world-wide 
understanding  that  will  result  in  political  stability? 

6.  Has  the  economic  brotherhood  of  man  already  been  estab- 
lished? What  relation  may  the  long-desired  social  brotherhood  of 
man  bear  to  the  economic  brotherhood  ? 

7.  Beginning  with  the  present  relationships  of  man  to  earth 
resources,  indicate  the  possible  changes,  through  inventions  and 
discoveries,  during  the  next  thousand  years. 


38      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Selected  References : 

Fairgrieve,  James.    Geography  and  World  Power. 

Gorgas,  William  Crawford.   Sanitation  in  Panama  (191 8),  p.  298. 

Holtz,  Frederick  L.  Principles  and  Methods  of  Teaching  Geog- 
raphy, pp.  290-308. 

Huntington,  Ellsworth.    World  Power  and  Evolution,  p.  287. 

Levine,  Isaac  Don.    The  Resurrected  Nations,  p.  309. 

Redway,  Jacques  W.    The  New  Basis  of  Geography,  pp.  1-15. 

Smith,  J.  Russell.    The  World's  Food  Resources. 

Stoddard,  Lothrop,  and  Frank,  Glenn.  Stakes  of  the  War, 
P-  377- 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  RELATION  OF  GEOGRAPHY  TO  OTHER 
SUBJECTS 

Geography  a  part  of  the  world-whole  of  knowledge. 
The  people  of  each  generation,  through  social  inheritance, 
have  the  accumulated  knowledge  of  the  past  on  which 
they  can  draw  for  assistance.  This  knowledge,  whether 
accidentally  or  purposefully  discovered,  in  so  far  as  it  has 
functioned  usefully,  has  been  considered  with  reference 
to  life  situations.  In  an  attempt  to  pass  on  the  social  in- 
heritance so  that  there  will  be  no  loss,  and  so  that  the 
knowledge  may  be  put  to  maximum  use,  it  has  been  cus- 
tomary to  establish  organizing  centers  about  which  ma- 
terial representing  a  similar  viewpoint  may  be  clustered. 

Numerous  subjects,  such  as  geography,  history,  and 
mathematics,  have  been  thus  recognized.  Geography  has 
been  further  subdivided  into  many  parts,  as  mathemati- 
cal, economic,  political,  regional,  and  locational  geog- 
raphy, each  of  which  represents  a  particular  viewpoint 
within  the  field  of  this  subject.  Each  special  phase  again 
is  divided  and  subdivided  unto  the  last  minor  detail. 
Any  topic,  consequently,  is  related  to  a  larger  topic  and 
to  corresponding  larger  topics,  in  the  last  analysis  forming 
a  part  of  a  major  organizing  center,  which  gives  rise  to  a 
subject — geography — and  which  in  turn  has  definite, 
unavoidable  relations  with  all  other  major  organizing 
centers  or  subjects. 

39 


40      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  various  subjects 
included  in  the  curriculum  are  recognized  for  convenience 
in  desirably  transmitting  the  more  fundamental  aspects 
of  the  social  inheritance.  The  teacher,  consequently,  is 
interested  not  only  in  the  development  of  the  geographical 
concept  through  a  logical,  well-graded  arrangement  of 
geographical  material,  but  also  in  the  proper  relating  of 
geography  to  other  subjects  in  such  a  way  that  the  sub- 
ject will  not  be  thought  of  in  isolation,  but  as  a  coordinate 
part,  in  common  with  other  subjects,  of  the  world-whole 
of  knowledge  and  a  coordinate  part  of  the  knowledge  of 
the  individual. 

The  "mutual  assistance"  of  subjects.  The  university 
student  of  geography,  stirred  with  a  strong  desire  to 
interpret  a  topic  geographically,  may  spend  much  time  in 
clarifying  and  elaborating  this  field  of  knowledge.  He 
may  be  interested  in  the  study  of  geography  in  relative 
isolation  from  other  subjects  in  order  that  he  may  bring 
out  clearly  the  significance  of  this  viewpoint.  The  teacher 
is  not  interested  in  making  any  subject  as  a  subject  stand 
out  prominently  in  the  child's  mind,  but  she  wishes  the 
pupil,  through  the  various  subjects,  to  establish  a  rational, 
comprehensive  contact  with  his  social  and  physical  en- 
vironment. With  this  aim  in  mind  she  avails  herself  of 
every  desirable  opportunity  to  draw  on  other  subjects  to 
illuminate  some  geography  topic,  and  she  likewise  is 
glad  to  have  other  subjects  reenforced  through  a  liberal 
use  of  geographical  data. 

The  same  topic  a  part  of  several  subjects.  Subjects 
can  be  made  of  mutual  assistance  to  each  other  with- 
out  necessarily   losing   their   identity.    The   same   topic 


RELATION  TO  OTHER  SUBJECTS  41 

may  be  discussed  in  connection  with  several  different 
subjects.  Japan  may  be  discussed  in  history  with  refer- 
ence to  its  development,  culminating  in  the  present. 
Japan  may  be  discussed  in  geography  with  reference  to 
the  effects  of  the  physical  background  in  influencing  the 
present  adjustments.  A  series  of  arithmetic  problems 
dealing  with  Japan  may  be  solved  by  the  arithmetic 
class.  The  subject  to  which  a  given  topic  belongs  is 
dependent  upon  the  particular  or  dominant  viewpoint 
taken  in  the  discussion  of  the  topic.  In  the  handling  of 
topics  in  the  classroom  the  geography  teacher  will  draw 
liberally  on  other  subjects  as  needed,  in  order  that  the 
pupil  may  secure  a  well-rounded  view  of  the  topic ;  but 
the  geographical  material  must  dominate  and  the  material 
of  other  subjects  must  merely  "assist"  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  topic  or  the  teacher  has  ceased,  temporarily 
at  least,  to  be  a  geography  teacher. 

Relation  of  tool  and  content  subjects.  Geography 
(place)  and  history  (time),  comprehensively  considered, 
involve  the  total  of  human  experience.  While  these  sub- 
jects are  all-inclusive,  many  subjects  have  been  con- 
veniently recognized  for  the  purpose  of  realizing  the 
aims  of  education. 

Subjects  have  their  raison  d'etre  in  relation  to  time 
(history)  and  place  (geography)  .  The  basic  content 
subjects  of  the  school  curriculum,  therefore,  are  geog- 
raphy and  history.  Other  content  subjects,  however, 
have  been  recognized  for  the  purpose  of  accomplishing 
specific  aims;  and,  in  addition,  certain  subjects,  as  writ- 
ing, reading,  spelling,  and  arithmetic,  have  been  organ- 
ized for  the  purpose  of  securing  definite  habits  and  skills. 


42       THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

History  and  geography  offer  the  opportunity  for  the 
securing  of  situations  out  of  which  the  need  for  a  mastery 
of  the  formal  subjects  may  arise.  It  is  evident,  then,  that 
while  other  subjects  will  react  on  geography  and  history 
in  a  helpful  way,  the  motive  for  interpreting  geography 
may  be  found  in  the  situations  of  these  subjects,  while  the 
significant  motive  for  the  mastery  of  the  tool  subjects  is 
to  be  found  in  the  need  of  mastering  certain  drills  and 
skills  in  order  that  the  product  may  be  more  efficiently 
and  quickly  used  in  the  interpretation  of  content  situa- 
tions. Geography  and  history  may  be  used  in  an  im- 
portant way  in  assisting  the  teacher  to  make  the  drill 
subjects  worth  while  and  purposeful.  In  a  minor  way  the 
drill  subjects  may  arouse  an  interest  in  the  content  sub- 
jects. One  does  not  naturally  interpret  a  life  situation, 
however,  in  order  that  one  may  learn  how  to  read,  write, 
and  calculate,  but  one  engages  in  drills  in  order  that  the 
situations  of  life  may  be  met  more  readily  and  effectively. 
Geography  and  real  life  situations.  The  suggested  rela- 
tion between  tool  and  content  subjects  is  based  on  the 
assumption  that  the  topics  selected  for  detailed  study  in 
the  content  subjects  represent  natural  situations.  If  geog- 
raphy is  taught  as  an  academic  subject,  the  need  for  the 
subject,  in  turn,  arises  out  of  life  situations.  If  life  situa- 
tions with  a  dominantly  geographical  basis  are  selected 
for  the  geography  course,  and  if  the  content  of  other  sub- 
jects is  incidentally  drawn  on  to  illuminate  the  situation, 
the  need  for  the  subject  is  found  in  the  topics  themselves. 
To  the  extent  that  geography  emphasizes  only  the  physi- 
cal background  at  the  relative  expense  of  correlative 
social  relations,  the  justification  of  the  subject  is  found 


RELATION  TO  OTHER  SUBJECTS  43 

in  the  study  of  the  geography  topic  as  a  part  of  the  com- 
plete unit  of  work.  Under  these  conditions  it  is  not  the 
drill  subjects  but  the  more  comprehensive  real  life  situa- 
tion that  will  furnish  the  relational  interpretation  that 
makes  academic  geography  meaningful.  The  present 
tendency,  as  indicated  elsewhere,  is  to  select  topics  with 
a  strong  geographical  element  and  to  study  them  as  com- 
plete units  rather  than  to  select  topics  for  a  one-sided 
geographical  interpretation. 

Geography  and  the  tool  subjects.  (1)  Reading.  The 
teacher  understands  the  importance  of  incorporating  into 
the  reading  lesson  ideas  that  are  related  to  the  child's 
interests  and  experiences.  She  draws  on  literature,  his- 
tory, civics,  and  geography.  Since  the  child  has  become 
acquainted  on  the  functional  side  with  the  wants  and 
needs  of  man,  —  food,  clothing,  shelter,  fuel,  light,  luxu- 
ries, and  transportation, — reading  material  based  on  these 
experiences  is  utilized.  The  child  has  a  keen  interest  in 
children  and  their  activities.  Many  of  the  selections, 
therefore,  are  based  on  activities  not  only  characteristic 
of  our  own  children  but  also  of  children  of  other 
lands.  The  teacher  of  geography,  while  incidentally 
interested  in  any  geographical  ideas  aroused  in  connection 
with  reading,  is  fundamentally  interested  in  the  pupil's 
reading  skill  as  a  basis  for  the  unlocking  of  the  great 
storehouse  of  geographical  material  found  in  books,  news- 
papers, and  magazines.  The  extensive  reading  involved 
in  the  study  of  geography  is  invaluable  in  enlarging  the 
child's  reading  vocabulary. 

(2)  Spelling.  The  teacher,  if  her  spelling  period  is  to 
yield  the  best  returns,  will  attempt  to  secure  words  that 


44  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

are  used  in  other  subjects.  The  geography  course  offers  a 
special  opportunity  to  secure  numerous  words  both  of  a 
special  and  general  nature.  The  geography  teacher  is 
interested  in  correct  spelling  in  connection  with  the  child's 
written  expression  of  ideas.  To  the  extent  that  the  pupil 
is  unable  to  spell  words  needed  in  geography,  the  teacher 
assists  by  placing  the  words  on  the  board.  The  list  of 
words  gradually  secured  in  this  way  is  sometimes  used 
for  drill  work  during  the  spelling  period. 

(3)  Writing.  The  teacher  of  writing,  in  securing  words, 
expressions,  and  sentences  in  which  the  child  has  an  in- 
terest, may  draw  on  geographical  experience.  The  geog- 
raphy teacher  may  assist  the  writing  teacher  by  insisting 
that  pupils  shall  write  neatly  and  legibly.  Unless  a  pupil 
is  held  to  a  high  standard  of  written  self-expression  in 
other  subjects  he  will  tend  to  discount  the  value  of  either 
spelling  or  writing.  The  geography  teacher  is  keenly 
interested  in  the  ability  of  the  child  to  express  himself  in  a 
clear,  legible  hand. 

(4)  English.  In  every  subject  correct  written  or  oral 
English  should  be  stressed.  The  geography  teacher  should 
be  interested  both  in  the  content  and  in  language  as  a 
medium  of  expression.  The  geography  content,  however, 
rather  than  the  English  form,  will  receive  the  major 
emphasis.  Too  much  attention  to  the  form  may  retard 
freedom  of  expression.  It  may  be  desirable,  therefore, 
to  note  some  of  the  more  common  mistakes,  to  which 
special  attention  may  be  given  in  the  English  lesson. 
After  the  mistakes  have  been  analyzed,  the  teacher  of 
other  subjects  should  assist  in  breaking  up  the  undesir- 
able habits.    Geography  material  may  be  used  by  the 


RELATION  TO  OTHER  SUBJECTS  45 

English  teacher  as  a  means  of  enlarging  the  vocabulary, 
improving  the  organization,  and  correcting  wrong  habits. 
Any  geography  contribution  of  the  English  teacher,  how- 
ever, is  incidental ;  language  improvement  as  a  basis  for 
expression  is  fundamental. 

( 5 )  Arithmetic.  The  arithmetic  teacher  no  longer  be- 
lieves that  a  well-graded  series  of  problems  is  sufficient. 
He  recognizes  the  desirability  of  organizing  his  problems 
about  life  situations.  The  pupil's  work  is  more  highly 
motivated  because  he  thinks  of  arithmetic  not  merely  as 
a  drill  subject  but  as  a  means  of  developing  an  arithmet- 
ical point  of  view  in  relation  to  life  situations.  Arithmetic, 
functioning  as  a  subject  in  relation  to  human  problems, 
tends  to  become  more  assuredly  a  part  of  the  usable 
knowledge  of  the  student.  Geography,  concerned  with 
the  adjustments  of  man  to  natural  resources,  offers 
unusual  opportunities,  hitherto  but  little  recognized,  for 
the  selection  and  grouping  of  such  problems  about 
geography  centers. 

The  Wentworth-Smith  School  Arithmetics  (Ginn  and 
Company)  illustrate  admirably  the  combination  of  care- 
ful grading  and  worth-while  problems  drawn  from  life 
situations.  Geographical  problems,  illustrating  the  close 
relations  of  arithmetic  and  geography,  have  been  included. 

In  the  chapter  entitled  "Introduction  to  Percentage" 
(" School  Arithmetic,  Advanced  Book,"  p.  139)  is  a  page 
of  "Problems  about  Geography,"  including  such  prob- 
lems as  the  following : 

The  area  of  Illinois  is  56,600  sq.  mi.  approximately.  Of  this 
63%  is  underlain  with  coal  beds.  How  many  square  miles  of 
coal  lands  are  there  in  the  state? 


46  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

The  area  of  the  United  States  is  3,600,000  sq.  mi.  approxi- 
mately, and  of  this  about  yl%  is  in  Texas  and  about  3.4% 
is  in  New  Mexico.  Find  the  approximate  number  of  square 
miles  in  each  of  these  states. 

It  will  be  noted  that  these  problems  not  only  teach 
percentage  but  convey  correct  geographical  impressions. 
Thus  the  first  problem  emphasizes  the  abundant  coal 
supply  of  Illinois,  which  contributes  so  much  to  the  indus- 
trial development  of  the  state,  and  the  second  compares 
the  relative  sizes  of  Texas  and  New  Mexico  both  by 
per  cents  and  by  areas. 

In  teaching  graphs  we  find  such  problems  as  the 
following  (p.  382)  : 

The  population  of  the  earth  by  continents  in  millions  is 
approximately  as  follows:  Africa,  143;  North  America,  140; 
South  America,  56;  Asia,  873;  Australasia,  16;  Europe,  465. 
Draw  a  graph  representing  these  facts. 

By  the  time  the  student  has  completed  the  graph  called 
for  in  the  problem  he  will  have  an  effective  conception  of 
the  distribution  of  population. 

In  other  parts  of  the  same  book  the  products  of  cer- 
tain sections  of  the  country  are  emphasized.  Thus  in  a 
group  of  problems  on  " Shipping  Fruit"  (p.  177)  we  have 
the  following : 

The  standard  Florida  orange  box  for  shipping  is  12  in.  by 
12  in.  by  26^:  in.    How  many  cubic  inches  does  it  contain? 

In  shipping  Georgia  peaches  a  crate  8  in.  by  12.J  in.  by 
22  in.  is  used.    This  contains  how  much  more  than   1  bu.? 

The  geography  teacher  is  eager  that  the  child  shall 
have  the  ability  to  express  himself  in  an  arithmetical  way. 


RELATION  TO  OTHER  SUBJECTS  47 

The  development  of  arithmetical  skill  in  relation  to  geo- 
graphical material  enables  the  pupil,  with  a  minimum  of 
effort,  to  apply  his  skill  in  the  interpretation  of  geograph- 
ical situations.  The  geography  and  arithmetic  teachers 
are  mutually  helpful.  If  the  arithmetic  pupil  needs  a  geo- 
graphical background,  the  arithmetic  teacher  gives  him 
the  slight  amount  required,  the  dominant  viewpoint  being 
arithmetical.  If  the  pupil  has  already  secured  the  neces- 
sary geographical  background,  the  arithmetic  teacher 
eagerly  relates  his  work  to  the  geographical  material.  In 
the  first  instance  the  pupil's  initial  grasp  of  geography 
may  be  given  by  the  arithmetic  teacher ;  in  the  second 
instance  the  value  of  the  geography  work  is  incidentally 
impressed  on  the  individual  because  of  the  use  to  which 
it  is  put  in  arithmetic. 

Content  subjects.   (1)  History.    As  long  as  history  was\ 
largely  a  mere  chronological  account  of  the  significant     \ 
happenings,  geography  was  not  drawn  upon  in  an  impor- 
tant way.    With  a  shift  in  emphasis  to  the  interpretation   / 
of  historic  events,  geography  has  been  levied  upon  heavily.  / 
The  inequalities  in  the  distribution  of  nature's  resources 
— differences  in  climate,  in  topography,  and  in  soils — have 
influenced    groups    of   people    differently.    The    opposed 
attitude  of  the  North  and  the  South  toward  slavery  was 
largely  a  reflection  of  a  contrast  in  climatic  conditions, 
the  resultant  products  of  which  made  slavery  profitable 
in  the  South  but  unprofitable  in  the  North.    The  pre- 
dominance of  manufacturing  in  New  England  has  caused 
this  section  to  favor  a  high  protective  tariff.    The  pres- 
ence of  gold  in  California  hastened  the  settlement  of  the 
Pacific  coast.    The  presence  of  the  Appalachian  barrier 


48      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

kept  the  colonies  concentrated  along  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board until  their  strength  was  sufficient  for  larger  con- 
quests. The  streams,  forests,  and  prairies  influenced  the 
development  of  America.  Every  military  campaign  or 
battle  becomes  meaningful  if  interpreted  in  terms  of 
topography,  climate,  and  resources. 

In  a  corresponding  way  the  geography  teacher  makes 
use  of  history.  An  interpretation  of  a  geographical  situa- 
tion is  often  inadequately  presented  unless,  in  addition 
to  the  influence  of  the  physical  environment,  the  past 
events  bearing  on  the  situation  are  also  considered.  A 
geographical  discussion  of  the  development  of  a  modern 
city,  as  New  York,  may  be  interpreted  in  a  strictly  geo- 
graphical way,  but  the  topic  is  grasped  more  effectively 
if  the  historical  perspective  of  development  is  included. 
Among  other  topics  similarly  in  need  of  history  may  be 
noted  ( i )  transportation  by  river,  canal,  and  rail,  and 
(2 )  economic  production,  as  orange  growing  in  California 
and  the  raising  of  Egyptian  cotton  in  the  Imperial  Valley. 
The  discussion  of  the  geography  of  a  country,  as  Mexico, 
is  one-sided  from  a  unit  standpoint  unless  the  historical 
explanation  of  the  present  unsatisfactory  development  is 
included.  A  consideration  of  numerous  topics  of  the  new 
Europe — for  example,  the  poverty  of  present  Austria,  the 
dying  of  Vienna,  and  the  aspirations  of  the  Poles — 
requires  a  historical  perspective.  As  long  as  history  is 
regarded  as  a  study  of  the  relations  of  peoples  and  their 
progress,  and  geography  is  regarded  as  a  study  of  the 
interacting  relations  of  man  and  the  physical  environ- 
ment, the  two  subjects  will  be  fundamentally  helpful  to 
each  other,  but  neither  will  be  absorbed  by  the  other. 


RELATION  TO  OTHER  SUBJECTS  49 

(2)  Literature.  Literature  becomes  tinged  with  a 
deeper  meaning  if  the  geographical  background  is  properly- 
developed.  If  the  selection  is  a  true  account  or  has  a  basis 
in  fact,  geography  may  aid  literature  much  as  it  assists 
history.  Even  though  the  selection  is  a  construction  of 
the  imagination,  an  understanding  of  the  physical  factors 
involved — whether  some  aspect  of  nature,  products,  or 
places — will  add  to  the  appreciation.  In  reenforcing  the 
geographical  discussions  the  geography  teacher  may  select 
pieces  of  literature  in  which  the  geographical  factors  are 
intimately  involved.  Geography,  however,  has  much 
more  to  contribute  to  literature  than  literature  has  to 
contribute  to  geography. 

Maintaining  the  geographical  viewpoint.  Each  subject 
represents  an  outlook  over  the  great  field  of  human  knowl- 
edge. An  attempt  is  made  to  develop  the  arithmetical 
outlook,  the  geographical  outlook,  and  the  historical  out- 
look. The  geography  teacher  has  a  definite  responsibility 
in  developing  the  geographical  outlook,  but,  as  has  been 
noted,  this  outlook  can  be  adequately  developed  only  by 
relating  the  geography  work  to  other  subjects.  If  the 
teacher  permits  the  assisting  subject  to  become  predomi- 
nant, however  worthy  the  material  under  discussion  may 
be,  she  is  lost.  It  is  the  business  of  the  geography  teacher 
to  find  in  the  field  of  geography  worth-while  material  for 
discussion.  She  is  interested  in  developing  the  individual 
through  the  subject  of  geography,  the  other  subjects 
incidentally  contributing.  Through  the  appropriate  use 
of  geographical  material  the  teacher  may  hope  to  arouse 
the  pupil's  interests  in  geography  in  relation  to  the  devel- 
opment of  corresponding  interests  in  other  subjects. 


50  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Suggestions  for  Further  Study : 

1.  (a)  List  some  topic  in  geography  and  indicate  how  an  adequate 
discussion  of  the  topic  may  require  the  assistance  of  other  subjects, 
and  (b)  list  topics  in  other  subjects  that  may  be  illuminated 
through  the  use  of  the  geography  learned  in  the  discussion  of  the 
topic. 

2.  Which  of  the  school  subjects  can  be  most  helpfully  related 
to  geography  ?    Give   reasons   for  your  selection. 

3.  List  a  geographical  topic  and  show  how,  through  a  discussion, 
the  class  may  gradually  digress  until  the  discussion  has  become  a 
part  of  another  subject.  Suggest  how  the  teacher,  if  digression  is 
threatened,  may  keep  the  class  in  the  field  of  geography. 

4.  Select  a  topic  and  show  that  it  may  be  considered  from  (a)  a 
geographical  viewpoint,  (b)  a  historical  viewpoint,  (c)  an  arith- 
metical viewpoint,  and  (d)  a  language  viewpoint. 

Selected  References : 

Armstrong,  T.  H.  "  Relation  of  Geography  to  the  Other  Studies 
in  the  Elementary  Course  of  Study,''  Education  (1903), 
Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  331-336- 

CHAMBERLAIN',  James  F.  "  Literary  Selections  as  an  Aid  in  Teach- 
ing Geography,"  Journal  of  Geography  (191 6),  Vol.  XV, 
pp.   9-16. 

Cockburn,  Sir  John.  "  Geography  as  a  Correlating  Center," 
Educational  Foundations  (1904),  p.    193. 

Dodge,  R.  E.,  and  Kirchwey,  C.  B.  The  Teaching  of  Geography, 
chap,  vii,  pp.  9S-1  1  1. 

Emerson,  Philip.  "  Primary  Geography  and  Reading,''  Journal 
of  Geography  (1914),   Vol.   XIII,   pp.   89-91. 

Holt/.,  Frkoerick  L.  Principles  and  Methods  of  Teaching  Geog- 
raphy, chap.  xxi.  pp.  273—289. 

Makindkr,  II.  J.  "Development  of  Geography  out  of  Nature 
Study,''   Educational  Foundations  (1904),   Vol.   XVI,   p.    194. 

McMukrv,   Charles.    Special   Method   in   Geography,   chap,   viii, 

pp.     I  I  7-1  2<S. 

Sutherland,  William  J.  The  Teaching  of  Geography,  chap,  iv, 
pp.  52-63  :   chap.  v.  pp.  63-80. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  EVOLUTION   OF   GEOGRAPHY  METHOD 

Status  of  geography  method  before  the  World  War. 
For  some  years  before  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War 
lecturers  had  frequently  spoken  of  the  unew  geography." 
The  leaders  of  geographical  thought  had  already  noted  the 
shortcomings  of  descriptive  geography,  of  fact  geography, 
and  of  place  geography.  The  emphasis  had  been  shifted 
to  relational  and  interpretative  geography.  Mere  descrip- 
tion of  the  location,  area,  topography,  soils,  and  climate 
of  a  region  was  insufficient.  The  "new  geography" 
involved  an  interpretation  of  the  relations  that  man  sus- 
tained with  his  environment.  The  facts  of  geography  were 
still  necessary,  and  a  good  memory  remained  a  valuable 
human  asset, but  information  was  related  to  interpretation. 

The  "old  geography"  had  been  organized  according  to  a 
standard  outline :  (i)  location,  (2)  area,  (3)  topography, 
(4)  climate,  (5)  life  forms,  and  (6)  human  activities.  Any 
area  under  discussion  was  ordinarily  developed  with  the 
aid  of  this  outline  or  some  similar  outline.  With  the  shift- 
ing of  emphasis  from  informational  to  interpretative  geog- 
raphy, as  represented  by  the  "new  geography,"  the 
standard  outline  was  retained,  and  an  endeavor  was  made 
to  ascertain  the  influence  of  each  physical  factor  upon 
human  activities.  The  retention  of  the  standard-outline 
organization    of   physical    factors   is   readily   understood 

51 


52       THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

when  it  is  remembered  that  geography  in  this  country- 
has  secured  its  impetus  in  large  part  from  teachers  of 
natural  sciences,  particularly  geologists.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  World  War  the  old  topical  outline  of  place  and 
description  had  been  vitalized  by  relating  these  topics  in 
a  meaningful  way  to  mankind. 

Status  of  geography  method  during  the  World  War. 
With  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War  the  people  of  the 
United  States  became  much  interested  in  the  European 
situation.  As  the  United  States  was  gradually  drawn  into 
the  struggle  this  interest  was  intensified.  The  entire  re- 
sources of  our  country  were  marshaled  in  an  endeavor  to 
preserve  American  ideals.  Every  institution  of  society 
was  called  upon  to  do  its  appropriate  work.  In  the  great 
battle  of  nations  the  schools  proved  their  sterling  worth. 
The  children  were  called  upon  to  sell  liberty  bonds, 
to  buy  thrift  stamps,  to  collect  waste  materials,  to  knit 
clothing,  and  to  arrange  patriotic  programs.  In  every 
instance  they  responded  whole-heartedly. 

The  war  not  only  appealed  to  social  instincts  and  inter- 
ests, but  it  directly  affected  practically  every  member  of 
the  social  group.  Interrupted  production  and  the  diver- 
sion of  large  quantities  of  materials  for  war  purposes 
helped  to  increase  prices.  In  many  instances  an  actual 
shortage  of  products  for  home  consumption,  as  sugar  and 
coal,  brought  the  war  very  close  to  the  firesides  of  the 
American  people ;  consequently  the  war  profoundly 
affected  both  the  social  and  the  individual  lives  of  men, 
women,  and  children.  The  school  problems  growing  out 
of  the  war  were  closely  related  to  the  social  organiza- 
tion, on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the  lives  of  the  children  on 


EVOLUTION  OF  GEOGRAPHY  METHOD         53 

the  other  hand.  Why  was  the  work  of  the  children  done 
so  quickly  and  so  effectively?  Because  the  children  had 
an  opportunity  to  do  something  that  would  really  count. 
Their  activities  were  directed  by  the  dominating  purpose 
of  realizing  an  aim  that  to  them  seemed  worth  while. 
They  were  finding  worth-while  situations  in  the  world's 
activities.  Because  of  the  spontaneous  response  of  the 
children,  the  World  War  brought  vividly  before  the  teach- 
ers the  increased  efficiency  that  can  be  secured  if  the 
school  work  is  related  closely  to  the  child's  interests  and 
experiences.  In  other  words,  the  World  War  strikingly 
illustrated  the  value  of  motivated  work. 

The  readjustment  of  the  local  economic  field  result- 
ing in  the  curtailment  of  certain  industries,  as  brickmak- 
ing,  and  resulting  in  the  enlargement  of  certain  industries 
whose  products  contributed  directly  toward  the  winning 
of  the  war  called  the  attention  of  the  residents  to  the 
nature  of  the  home  industries  and  brought  into  prom- 
inence the  raw  materials  upon  which  these  industries 
depended.  The  intense  interest  in  local  affairs  aroused  a 
further  interest  in  the  related  national  and  international 
affairs.  Home  geography  was  emphasized  more  than  ever 
because  of  the  social  situation  which  demanded  it.  The 
teachers,  recognizing  the  value  of  local  materials  intrinsi- 
cally and  as  a  basis  for  the  interpretation  of  the  far-away, 
inspected  local  topographic  features  and  industries  and 
discussed  local  problems.  As  a  result  of  the  WTorld  War, 
therefore,  local  geography  was  amplified  and,  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  world  problems,  illustrations  were  drawn  from 
the  home  field  whenever  this  was  possible.  More  care- 
fully than  ever  before,  the  teacher  related  the  experiences 


54      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

of  the  child,  secured  from  his  immediate  environment,  to 
the  problems  of  the  distant  regions. 

The  numerous  problems  that  came  up  in  connection 
with  the  war  were  studied  in  their  natural  setting.  The 
war  arose  out  of  a  difference  of  ideals  among  the  social 
groups.  The  attention  of  the  world,  therefore,  was  drawn 
first  of  all  to  social  groups,  the  various  peoples  at  war, 
the  armies  and  navies.  It  was  soon  seen  that  the  social 
structure  was  fundamentally  based  upon  a  physical  back- 
ground, particularly  the  plant,  animal,  and  mineral  re- 
sources and  the  transportation  facilities.  The  economic 
resources  of  the  earth  loomed  into  fateful  significance.  It 
was  realized  as  never  before  that  the  resources  of  the  earth 
are  unequally  distributed  and  that  the  increasing  needs 
and  wants  of  man  were  being  supplied  only  through  the 
wonderful  transportation  system  that  had  been  developed, 
reaching  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  distribution  and 
nature  of  the  earth  resources,  the  means  of  increasing  pro- 
duction, the  redistribution  of  resources  so  as  to  serve  the 
Allies  in  the  most  effective  fashion,  were  some  of  the  big 
subjects  that  came  up  for  discussion.  While  the  physical 
background  was  brought  into  prominence,  it  will  be  noted 
that  the  approach  to  the  physical  background  came  from 
the  social  side.  The  problems  that  arose  during  the 
World  War,  therefore,  expressed  the  needs  of  the  social 
group,  and  all  physical  factors  that  had  a  bearing  on  the 
problem  entered  into  the  discussions.  With  the  thorough 
motivation  of  problems,  the  approach  was  from  the  social 
rather  than  from  the  physical  viewpoint. 

The  use  of   maps  and  globes  had   long  been   recom- 
mended for  geography  classes.    In  many  schools,  however, 


EVOLUTION  OF  GEOGRAPHY  METHOD         55 

these  symbols  were  more  or  less  indifferently  used.  Dur- 
ing the  war  the  interest  of  people  in  various  parts  of 
the  world  caused  them  to  make  a  liberal  use  of  maps  and 
globes  in  locating  places  and  in  discovering  the  conditions 
of  climate,  relief,  and  drainage  that  affected  activities. 
This  demand  was  noticeable  in  the  homes  as  well  as  in 
the  schools.  More  map  equipment  was  purchased  for  the 
schools,  and  dust-covered  atlases  were  resurrected  from 
their  obscure  places.  Real,  vital  problems,  which  could 
best  be  answered  with  the  aid  of  maps,  stimulated  both 
teacher  and  pupils  to  use  them  frequently.  As  a  result, 
geography  teaching  was  improved  through  the  use  of 
more   effective  tools  in   the  consideration  of  problems. 

Before  the  war  the  tendency  had  been  to  consider  any 
well-defined  geographical  influences,  whether  these  influ- 
ences were  of  slight  or  of  fundamental  significance.  In 
the  life-and-death  struggle  of  a  nation  the  more  important 
problems  naturally  will  become  prominent,  while  inci- 
dental problems  will  scarcely  be  given  passing  notice. 
The  problems  that  were  discussed  by  the  social  group,  in 
general,  were  very  vital.  When  Constantinople  was  being 
attacked,  it  was  not  a  peculiar  custom  of  the  Moham- 
medans that  was  being  discussed,  but  the  difficulties  in- 
volved in  capturing  the  city  and  the  significance  of  this 
city,  if  captured,  to  the  Allies.  In  the  consideration  of 
various  regions,  therefore,  the  more  significant  problems 
were  brought  out  in  detail,  while  the  less  significant 
physical  influences  were  ignored. 

Status  of  geography  method  after  the  World  War. 
With  the  termination  of  the  war  the  demands  of  other 
institutions  upon  the  schools  rapidly  diminished,  although 


56      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

the  worth  of  the  schools  in  helping  to  solve  the  social 
problems  had  been  conclusively  demonstrated.  At  the 
time  that  the  need  of  other  institutions  for  direct  assist- 
ance of  the  schools  was  acute,  the  ready  response  of  the 
pupils  proved  that  the  schools  also  needed  the  assistance 
of  out-of-school  forces.  It  remains  yet  to  be  proved  that 
the  problems  of  peace  may  be  made  just  as  appealing  as 
the  problems  of  war.  Teachers  have  been  taught  a  les- 
son, and  they  are  eagerly  scanning  the  newspapers  for 
vital,  appealing  current  events  and  are  making  an  impor- 
tant use  of  local  industries  and  topographic  forms  and 
processes. 

Teachers  are  no  longer  insisting  that  a  standardized 
outline  should  be  used  in  the  teaching  of  the  various  coun- 
tries. They  are  seeking  earnestly  for  the  more  significant 
problems  of  each  area  and  are  leaving  the  unimportant 
details  for  more  advanced  study.  The  trained  geog- 
rapher can  help  the  teachers  by  making  a  special  study  of 
the  content  of  geography  for  every  part  of  the  world 
and  by  selecting  the  more  important  problems  for  an 
elaborate  development  without  reference  to  an  encyclo- 
pedic inclusion  of  all  facts  that  have  been  included  to 
satisfy  the  demands  of  the  standardized  outline.  The 
teacher  will  make  a  special  study  of  the  geographic  prob- 
lems that  the  geographer  considers  of  primary  importance 
and  will  make  a  special  study  of  the  interests  and  experi- 
ences of  children  with  the  purpose  of  causing  the  prob- 
lems to  arise  out  of  natural  situations  of  the  child's  life. 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  geographer  to  indicate  the  geographic 
problems  that  are  of  greatest  worth  to  society,  and  it  is 
the  business  of  the  teacher  to  find  some  means  of  getting 


EVOLUTION  OF  GEOGRAPHY  METHOD  57 

the  child  to  adopt  these  problems  as  his  own  personal 
problems,  to  be  solved  through  his  initiative. 

Evolution  of  geographic  method.  In  the  preceding 
discussion  it  has  been  indicated  (1)  that  until  about 
the  close  of  the  last  century  the  subject  of  geography 
consisted  largely  of  description  and  location;  (2)  that 
the  various  countries  were  studied  according  to  a  stand- 
ardized outline;  (3)  that  this  standardized  outline 
approached  the  study  of  an  area  from  the  physical 
standpoint;  (4)  that  when  informational  geography 
was  supplemented  with  interpretative  geography  the 
same  standardized  outline  was  retained.  The  process  of 
pedagogical  evolution  was  hastened  by  the  advent  of  the 
World  War,  so  that  (1)  more  attention  was  given  to  the 
effective  motivation  of  problems;  (2)  the  more  signifi- 
cant problems  of  each  region  were  selected  for  careful 
study  ;  (3)  the  problems  were  approached  from  the  social 
rather  than  from  the  physical  standpoint;  (4)  the  special 
symbols  of  geography,  the  map  and  the  globe,  were 
effectively  used ;  and  (5)  local  geography  received  much 
emphasis.  With  the  termination  of  the  war  the  teachers 
have  attempted  to  retain  the  advantages  that  the  war 
has  unquestionably  brought.  Many  of  these  advantages, 
it  is  believed,  can  be  retained  through  the  use  of  the 
problem  method. 

The  problem.  The  areal  unit  under  consideration 
may  be  Poland.  The  significance  of  motivation  may  be 
indicated  in  the  various  types  of  assignments  that  may 
be  made.  Poland  may  be  studied  systematically  accord- 
ing to  a  standardized  outline,  by  topics,  or  each  topic 
may  be  stated  in  the  form  of  an  interpretative  problem. 


58      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

The  status  of  Poland  in  the  world  affairs  of  today  may  be 
noted,  and  the  chief  problems  of  immediate  concern  to 
the  world  may  be  studied.  A  problem  of  considerable 
interest  is  uIs  it  probable  that  Poland  will  become  a 
great  European  power  ? "  The  technic  of  the  teacher 
enters  into  the  assignment  in  an  important  way :  ( i )  she 
may  simply  assign  the  problem  for  study;  (2)  she  may 
discuss  the  partition  of  Poland,  the  aspirations  of  the 
Poles,  and  the  factors  leading  to  the  recognition  of  Poland, 
and  thus  seek  to  arouse  an  interest  in  Poland.  This  dis- 
cussion may  precede  or  succeed  the  statement  of  the 
problem.  Preferably  the  introductory  material  should 
precede  the  statement  of  the  problem,  which  should  arise 
out  of  the  interests  and  experiences  of  the  child  appealed 
to  in  the  introductory  discussion. 

After  the  problem  is  raised  and  concisely  stated,  the 
degree  of  enthusiasm  with  which  it  will  be  attacked  will 
depend  upon  the  feeling  of  worth-whileness  of  the  prob- 
lem that  has  been  aroused  in  the  initial  discussion  and 
upon  the  more  or  less  urgent  appeal  of  other  problems 
that  the  pupil  may  have.  When  the  problem  has  been 
properly  aroused  in  the  minds  of  the  children,  the 
next  step  involves  the  securing  of  material  that  has  a 
probable  bearing  on  the  problem.  This  material  is  care- 
fully studied  in  relation  to  the  problem.  In  a  discussion 
of  the  Polish  problem  such  topics  as  the  following  will  be 
discussed  :  the  effects  of  location,  with  reference  to  the 
sea,  to  friendly  or  unfriendly  nations,  to  the  chief  land 
routes  of  Europe;  the  possibilities  of  friction  with  adjoin- 
ing nations  due  to  boundary  lines  not  physically  well  de- 
fined, economic  jealousies,  political  ambitions,  and  vaguely 


EVOLUTION  OF  GEOGRAPHY  METHOD  59 

defined  ethnographic  boundaries ;  the  resources  of  the 
country — (1)  minerals,  particularly  coal  and  iron, 
(2)  agricultural  products  and  conditioning  factors,  such 
as  temperature,  precipitation,  soils,  and  drainage,  (3)  pas- 
toral products,  with  respect  to  their  significance  in  rugged 
regions,  and  the  place  of  live  stock  in  diversified  agricul- 
ture, (4)  products  of  the  forests,  (5)  the  development  of 
transportation  facilities  as  affected  by  topography  and 
economic  needs,  (6)  the  surplus  resources  and  their  dis- 
position, (7)  needed  products  which  must  be  imported, 

(8)  the  importance  of  the  manufacturing  industries,  and 

(9)  the  possibilities  of  developing  latent  resources  and  of 
increasing  the  value  of  manufactured  products ;  the  physi- 
cal and  economic  factors  encouraging  or  discouraging 
political  stability ;  stimulus  of  the  physical  environment, 
particularly  climate,  directly  upon  the  people ;  and  the 
character  of  the  people  as  developed  historically  under  the 
influence  of  the  physical  environment. 

In  the  handling  of  topics  over  which  the  public  is  thor- 
oughly aroused,  considerable  skill  is  required  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher.  In  the  school  of  yesterday  modern  prob- 
lems of  a  really  vital  nature  were  scarcely  discussed  be- 
cause it  was  recognized  that  such  problems  were  full  of 
social  gunpowder.  We  are  coming  to  believe  that  vital 
problems  should  be  discussed,  and  we  are  coming  to 
judge  a  teacher,  in  part,  by  the  skill  she  shows  in  develop- 
ing all  parts  of  a  problem,  in  securing  a  free  and  easy 
discussion  on  the  part  of  the  children,  in  getting  them,  al- 
though perhaps  disagreeing,  to  respect  the  opinions  of 
each  other,  and  in  teaching  them  how  to  discuss  con- 
scientiously problems  over  which  there  may  be  serious 


60      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

disagreement  and  yet  to  continue  to  dwell  together  in 
brotherly  love  and  in  harmony. 

After  the  problem  has  been  thoroughly  discussed,  con- 
clusions should  be  reached  or  the  material  summarized. 
If  adults  are  divided  over  the  proper  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem, it  is  better  to  encourage  each  child  to  come  to  his 
own  personal  conclusion,  but  he  should  be  required  to 
summarize  the  material  in  such  a  way  as  to  indicate  that  i 
reason  as  well  as  feeling  enters  into  the  result. 

Suggestions  for  Further  Study : 

1.  Select  some  country  and  contrast  the  treatment  that  was  given 
it  some  years  ago  with  the  best  possible  presentation  according  to 
the  light  of  modern  pedagogy. 

2.  Is  the  author  justified  in  taking  the  World  War  as  a  pivot  for 
the  discussion  of  geographic  progress  ? 

3.  Is  it  probable  that  substantial  progress  in  the  teaching  of 
geography  would  have  been  made  if  the  World  War  had  not 
occurred  ? 

4.  What  relation  may  be  established  between  the  evolution  of 
geographic  knowledge  and  the  evolution  of  geographic  method  ? 

5.  Along  what  lines  should  investigators  work  with  the  view  of 
improving  further  the  teaching  of  geography  ? 


Selected  References : 

Atwood,  Wallace  W.  "  Geography  in  America,"  Geographical 
Review  (1919),  Vol.  VII,  pp.  36-43. 

Brigham,  A.  P.  "Geography  and  the  War,"  Journal  of  Geography 
(1920),  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  89-102. 

Brown",  Robert  M.  "Geography  in  Practice  and  in  Theory,"  Edu- 
cational Review,  Vol.  IV,  p.  30. 

Goode,  J.  Palm..  "What  the  War  should  do  for  our  Methods  in 
Geography,"  School  and  Society  (1919),  Vol.  IX.  pp.  459-462. 


EVOLUTION  OF  GEOGRAPHY  METHOD  61 

Miller,  George  J.    "  National  Council  of  Geography  Teachers," 

Journal  of  Geography  (1920),  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  69-76. 
Phillips,  C.  A.    "  Development  of  Methods  of  Teaching  Modern 

Geography,"  Elementary  School  Teacher,  Vol.  X,  pp.  427-515. 
Potter,  Jefferson  R.    "  History  of  the  Methods  of  Instruction  in 

Geography,"  Pedagogical  Seminary  (1891),  Vol.  I,  pp.  415-424. 
Rooper,  T.  G.    "  Methods  of  Teaching  Geography,"  Journal  of 

Geography  (1902),  Vol.   I,  pp.   70-76. 
Thomas,   Olive  J.    "  Development  and   Present   Organization  of 

Elementary  School  Geography  in  the  United  States,"  Journal 

of  Geography  (191  7),  Vol.  XV,  pp.  213-221. 
Winship,  A.  E.    "  From  Absurd  to  Beautiful  Books,"  Journal  of 

Education  (1909),  Vol.  LXIX,  pp.  674-676. 


CHAPTER  V 

AIMS  OR  PURPOSES  IN  THE  TEACHING  OF 
GEOGRAPHY 

Agreement  with  the  general  aims  of  education.  Since 
geography  is  one  of  the  subjects  through  the  teaching  of 
which  the  desirable  development  of  the  child  is  effected, 
geographical  aims  must  be  in  harmony  with  the  general 
aims  of  education.  Through  education  the  individual 
learns  how  to  adjust  himself  to  his  physical  and  social 
environment  for  the  common  welfare.  Through  the  many 
processes  of  adjustment  and  readjustment  he  secures  the 
finest  kind  of  training  in  citizenship.  The  importance  of 
training  the  pupil  not  only  to  adjust  himself  to  existing 
conditions,  but  also  to  interpret  existing  conditions  with 
the  view  of  improving  them,  is  keenly  recognized  in  our 
progressive  schools.  If  the  general  aims  of  education  are 
adequately  realized,  geography,  taught  from  the  modern 
viewpoint,  inevitably  is  strongly  emphasized. 

VIEWS  OF  EDUCATORS  CONCERNING  THE  AIMS  OF 
GEOGRAPHY  TEACHING 

Usable  geographical  knowledge.  The  desirability  of 
acquainting  the  child  with  usable  geographical  knowledge 
is  suggested  in  the  following  statement  of  R.  E.  Dodge 
and  C.  B.  Kirchwey:1 

1  The  Teaching  of  Geography,  p.  8. 

62 


AIMS  63 

The  decision  as  to  what  should  be  included  in  a  school 
course  in  geography,  then,  depends  on  our  understanding  of 
what  we  would  like  a  pupil  to  gain  from  his  elementary-school 
study  of  geography.  The  desired  result  may  be  considered 
under  two  heads :  first,  knowledge  of  geographic  facts  and 
principles ;  and  second,  power  to  use  that  knowledge  in  daily 
life  both  during  the  school  years  and  afterwards. 

Enlightened  outlook  on  the  world.  Geography  should 
give  the  student  a  comprehensive  view  of  man's  relations 
to  the  earth. 

The  purpose  of  geographical  teaching  may  be  defined  as  the 
acquisition  by  the  pupil  of  a  familiarity  with  the  working  of 
geographical  principles  in  concrete  cases,  and  the  creation  of  a 
more  enlightened  outlook  on  other  peoples  and  on  certain 
classes  of  public  events.1 

Practical  and  cultural  aims.  Professor  F.  L.  Holtz2 
classifies  the  aims  as  practical  and  cultural.  Under  prac- 
tical values  he  states  that  (1)  geography  teaches  place 
relations  that  may  be  used  in  daily  life ;  (2)  the  commer- 
cial and  manufacturing  world  depends  upon  geographical 
information;  (3)  geography  teaches  us  about  our  own 
country  and  also  about  foreign  countries,  which  are  but 
complements  of  home  geography;  (4)  national  and  inter- 
national sympathies  are  broadened;  (5)  geographical 
allusions  in  current  reading  material  may  be  more  readily 
understood  and  appreciated;  and  (6)  ability  to  use  geo- 
graphical material  in  after-school  days  is  given.  Under 
cultural  aims  he  states  that  ( 1 )  geography  contributes  to 
the  enjoyment  of  the  natural  elements  and  forces,  the 

1  Archer,  Lewis,  and  Chapman,  The  Teaching  of  Geography,  p.  7. 

2  Principles  and  Methods  of  Teaching  Geography,  pp.  1-5. 


64      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

beauty  of  scenery,  and  the  ways  of  life  of  the  people,  both 
in  our  local  walks  and  in  more  extended  travels;  (2)  the 
subject  is  intrinsically  very  interesting;  (3)  geography  as 
a  discipline  tends  to  establish  certain  habits  of  thinking, 
a  geographical  method  of  looking  at  the  relations  of 
the   earth   and   man. 

Geographical  adjustment.  Professor  Sutherland  has 
stated1  that  (1)  geography  should  assist  in  adjusting  the 
pupil  to  his  physiographic,  economic,  social,  and  political 
environment ;  ( 2 )  geography  has  much  practical  value ; 
(3)  geography  should  be  studied  as  uthe  only  true  basis 
for  the  study  of  natural  science";  (4)  the  cultural  value 
of  geography  is  very  evident.  "Many  students  of  geog- 
raphy assert  that  there  is  no  subject  that  has  done  more 
to  broaden  their  intellectual  outlook  and  to  deepen  their 
appreciation  of  nature  and  life  generally  than  has  the 
study  of  geography." 

Knowledge  of  peoples  and  countries  with  adequate 
interpretations.  A  broad  acquaintanceship  with  numerous 
groups  of  people  will  be  helpful  in  maintaining  desirable 
social  relations. 

Let  us  grant  that  many  a  man  is  earning  a  living  and  is 
getting  a  good  deal  of  satisfaction  out  of  life,  and  doing  both 
on  a  very  limited  knowledge  of  geography.  Men  have  become 
millionaires  and  presidents  who  did  not  know  whether  St.  Roque 
is  a  cape  or  a  river,  and  the  man  who  invented  the  roller 
process  of  making  Hour  may  not  have  known  the  ''leading 
five  wheat-growing  states  of  the  Union."  Yet  this  and  a 
great  deal  more  may  be  granted  without  altering  the  general 
truth  that  geographical  knowledge  is  a  good  thing  and  a  useful 

1  William  J.  Sutherland.  The  Teaching  of  Geography,  pp.  80-93. 


AIMS  65 

thing ;  that  it  makes  our  reading  more  satisfying,  our  conver- 
sation more  intelligent,  our  minds  more  broad,  our  sympathies 
more  cosmopolitan,  and  our  citizenship  more  enlightened.  .  .  . 

If  taught  with  much  field  work,  geography  trains  the  powers 
of  observation ;  if  taught  with  much  map  drawing,  it  trains  the 
eye  and  hand ;  if  taught  as  it  was  in  my  country-school  days, 
it  trains  the  memory.  All  of  these  are  legitimate,  all  deserve 
some  degree  of  emphasis,  yet  the  study  of  geography  is  not  a 
device  or  an  invention  for  accomplishing  even  these  worthy 
ends  of  training  the  observation,  the  eye,  the  hand,  or  the 
memory. 

Without  intending  in  the  least  to  minimize  the  importance 
of  training  the  powers  of  observation  or  imagination  or  the 
powers  of  eye  and  hand  and  memory,  I  am  still  convinced  that 
geography  has  it  own  mission  in  the  school.  That  mission  is 
to  give  the  broadest  possible  knowledge  of  peoples  and  coun- 
tries, their  cities,  their  industries,  their  achievements,  and  all 
that  goes  to  make  them  strong  or  weak,  leaders  or  followers 
among  the  nations  of  the  earth ;  and  the  principal  reasons  why 
these  things  are  as  they  are.1 

Method  aims  versus  content  aims.  The  teacher  may 
stress  the  various  ways  in  which  results  are  secured,  or  she 
may  stress  the  content  with  slight  reference  to  method. 

Teachers  of  one  group  believe  that  the  object  of  the  study 
of  geography  is  the  acquisition  of  a  certain  mass  of  definite, 
organized  material,  useful  in  its  application  in  later  student 
life.  Teachers  of  the  other,  realizing  the  impossibility  of  the 
pupils'  acquiring  in  a  few  years  an  encyclopedic  mass  of  ma- 
terial which  shall  always  be  equal  to  the  demand  upon  it, 
hold  that  the  purpose  of  geography  teaching  is  to  arouse  in  the 
pupil  a  desire  to  follow  out  each  geographic  lead  to  its  logical 

:  R.  II.  Whitbeck,  "Ideals  and  Aims  in  Elementary  Geography,"  Jour- 
nal of  Geography   (1915),  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  69-70. 


66      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

end,  to  teach  him  where  to  seek  geographic  information  and 
how  to  use  it,  and  to  create  in  him  an  interest  in  all  things 
geographic, —  to  give  him,  in  short,  a  working  knowledge  of 
geography.1 

Training  and  cultural  values.  Geography  should  im- 
part an  ability  to  adjust  one's  life  to  the  opportunities 
presented. 

To  sum  up :  Through  the  study  of  geography  we  may  direct 
the  student  to  current  periodicals  and  newspapers  of  a  good 
class,  we  may  stimulate  them  to  read  books  of  travel  and 
description  and  arouse  a  desire  to  travel,  and  at  the  same  time 
we  may  train  them  into  library  habits.  We  may  lead  them  to 
respect  labor,  to  appreciate  beauty  in  nature,  and  to  an  ethical 
point  of  view  in  the  social  phase  of  the  study  of  the  great 
commercial  products.2 

Brotherhood  of  man.  The  dependence  of  men,  in  com- 
mon, upon  the  resources  of  the  earth  should  form  the 
basis  for  a  universal  brotherhood. 

The  fact  that  other  people  believe  themselves  the  "chosen 
ones  of  God,"  and  act  upon  this  belief,  in  no  way  atones  for 
our  sin  in  this  direction.  We  should  be  held  responsible  for 
our  acts,  and  unless  the  belief  in  the  brotherhood  of  man  be- 
comes a  conviction  instead  of  a  platitude,  race  war  is  inevi- 
table. Race  prejudice  must  be  eliminated  in  order  to  avoid 
this  awful  calamity.  In  perplexity  we  turn  to  the  school  for 
help.  Here  we  find  that  the  geography  teacher  more  than  any 
other  has  the  opportunity  of  erasing  race  prejudices.  This  is 
because  geography   is  the  only  subject   that  brings  one   into 

!Jane  Perry  Cook,  "Primary  Aims  in  Geography  Teaching  in  the 
Grammar  Grades,"  Journal  of  Geography   (iqn),  Vol.  IX,  p.  203. 

-Bertha  Henderson,  "The  Cultural  and  the  Training  Value  of  Geog- 
raphy," Journal  of  Geography,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  1 00-101. 


AIMS  67 

contact  with  all  the  living  peoples  of  the  world.  ...  In  order 
that  the  student  may  learn  to  emphasize  the  best  natural  quali- 
ties of  others  as  readily  as  he  is  wont  to  emphasize  those  of 
his  own  people,  care  must  be  taken  to  stress  the  greatest  achieve- 
ments and  best  characteristics  of  all  foreign  peoples  studied.1 

The  following  quotation  from  a  paper  by  J.  Russell 
Smith"  suggests  that  an  inadequate  emphasis  upon  the 
"brotherhood  of  man"  in  the  teaching  of  geography 
may  have  been  a  factor  that  caused  the  Germans  reck- 
lessly to  plunge  the  world  into  a  terrible  struggle : 

Germany  is  self-centered.  The  courses  in  history  begin  and 
end  with  Germany  and  give  very  little  attention  to  any  other 
country.  The  method  of  instruction  seems  to  savor  strongly 
of  the  imperial  idea,  with  militant  Germany  as  a  unified  and 
central  figure.  History  is  a  tool  to  excite  patriotism,  and 
geography,  by  its  great  emphasis  on  Germany,  is  in  some 
measure  her  sister.  One  result  is  a  surprising  ignorance  of 
foreign  countries,  and  America  is  no  exception. 

Aesthetic  enjoyment.  The  study  of  geography  should 
lead  to  a  deep  appreciation  of  the  beauties  of  nature. 

Every  land  has  its  beauties  of  form,  impressive,  appealing 
and  beyond  human  understanding  or  complete  appreciation. 
If  they  be  analyzed  into  their  parts  from  a  purely  artistic 
standpoint,  like  the  curves  of  ancient  architecture,  they  have 
an  artistic  force  that  is  striking.  If  they  be  viewed  as  wholes 
and  behind  the  forms  there  be  seen  in  suggestion  the  long 
life  history  that  each  form  may  reveal  in  a  fragmentary  way 

1  Zonia  Baber,  "  Lost  Opportunities  in  the  Teaching  of  Geography," 
Journal  of  Geography   (1916),  Vol.  XIV,  p.  207. 

-"Geography  in  Germany,"  Journal  of  Geography  (1012),  Vol.  I, 
P-  430. 


68  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

to  the  sympathetic  and  understanding  inquirer,  they  offer  a 
source  of  pleasure,  joy,  and  profit  to  all. 

To  know  one's  landscape,  to  feel  in  sympathy  with  it,  is 
often  to  be  at  peace  with  life.  When  all  the  world  seems 
wrong  and  the  burdens  overwhelming,  he  who  can  look  out  on 
the  familiar  fields  and  hills  or  get  among  them  and  give  way 
to  their  beauties  of  form  and  color  has  a  resource  within 
himself  that  will  be  an  ever-present  power  of  recuperation.1 

Aims  noted  in  the  St.  Louis  School  Survey.2  The  sub- 
committee on  the  course  of  study  in  geography  agreed 
that  the  following  results  should  be  secured  in  the  teach- 
ing of  geography  in  the  elementary  schools : 

i.  Vocational  understanding.  They  express  the  judgment 
that  geography  is  of  direct  and  immediate  technical  vocational 
service  for  only  a  few  occupations,  but  that  it  is  of  immeasur- 
able service  for  developing  that  general  occupational  intelli- 
gence necessary  on  the  part  of  all  within  a  democracy  for  the 
purpose  of  general  supervision,  through  public  opinion,  of  the 
various  constituent  social  groups :  manufacturing,  commercial, 
mining,  agricultural,  and  other  industrial  groups.  They  also 
refer  to  the  value  of  geography  to  those  who  consume  the 
products  of  the  multitude  of  occupational  groups. 

2.  Social  and  civic  understanding.  The  subject  has,  further, 
the  all-important  task  of  developing  an  understanding  and 
appreciation  of  the  interdependencics  existing  among  individ- 
uals and  social  groups  of  every  type.  "The  teaching,"  they 
say,  "should  cultivate  sympathy  with  others  whose  needs, 
resources,  efforts,  and  feelings  are  like  our  own.  Prejudices 
grow  out  of  ignorance  and  are  best  removed  by  understanding." 

1  R.  E.  Dodge,  "An  /Esthetic  Side  of  Geography,"  Journal  of  Geog- 
raphy C1915),  Vol.  x;ir.  p.  305. 

-Survey  of  the  St.  Louis  Public  Schools,  Board  of  Education  of 
St.    Louis    (1917),    pp.    91-92. 


AIMS  69 

3.  They  refer  to  the  enrichment  of  consciousness  through 
giving  one  a  vision  of  the  geographical  environment  that  is  as 
wide  as  the  world  itself.  It  is  to  give  him  intellectually,  so- 
cially, and  otherwise  a  world  that  is  bounded  not  by  the  nar- 
row visible  horizon  of  the  region  where  he  dwells,  but  which 
is  bounded  by  a  world  horizon.  Familiar  thus  with  multitudes 
of  things  and  relations,  his  consciousness  is  not  only  liberal- 
ized, but  he  is  given  the  very  practical  power  of  adaptability 
to  conditions  wherever  he  may  find  himself. 

4.  The  committee  also  refers  to  conventional  values — knowl- 
edge of  geographical  facts  that  people  are  supposed  to  know 
just  because  the  schools  have  been  in  the  habit  of  teaching 
them.  The  positive  program  of  the  committee  naturally  nega- 
tives this  criterion.  They  show  their  negative  attitude  toward 
it  particularly  as  they  draw  up  the  program  of  work.  The 
minima  of  place  geography  are  relatively  brief  and  include 
practically  nothing  beyond  what  people  need  to  know  in  that 
general  geographical  orientation  indicated  by  the  committee 
in  the  three  purposes  above  enumerated.  The  list  of  minimum 
essentials  omits  hundreds  of  place  names  that  for  most  people 
have  no  value  beyond  the  conventional  one. 

5.  The  committee  refers  to  certain  other  general  types  of 
results  of  the  subjective  "mental  discipline"  character.  It  is 
not  possible  to  judge  the  extent  to  which  these  subjective  aims 
influenced  the  committee  in  its  choice  of  geographical  subject 
matter.  The  first  three  of  the  aims  just  mentioned  are  the 
ones  that  are  most  fruitful  and  appear  to  be  the  ones  at  least 
chiefly  in  the  minds  of  the  committee  in  their  work. 

The  teaching  of  geography  should  impart  the  more 
important  facts  of  conventional  or  practical  value,  should 
secure  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  ability  to  interpret  prop- 
erly the  geographical  factors  that  enter  into  problems  of 
timelv  moment,  and  should  develop  an  aonrcciation  of 


70      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

the  importance  of  the  United  States  intrinsically  and  in 
its  relational  aspects  to  the  world  as  a  whole.  The  realiza- 
tion of  these  aims  requires  not  only  that  the  teacher  shall 
relate  the  child  to  the  necessary  geography  content  but 
that  she  shall  present  this  material  in  approved  ways.  The 
teacher  who  would  succeed  in  the  teaching  of  geography, 
therefore,  must  have  an  adequate  mastery  of  both  content 
and  method. 

Immediate  aims.  In  order  that  the  general  aims  shall 
be  realized,  it  is  necessary  that  a  teacher  shall  set  up 
specific  aims  that  she  wishes  to  realize  through  each  geo- 
graphical unit  of  work.  The  immediate  aims  should  be 
definite.  These  aims  may  involve  (i)  certain  facts, 
(2)  the  interpretation  of  facts,  (3)  the  ability  to  use 
knowledge  in  a  new  situation,  and  (4)  the  establishment 
of  ideals.  Many  of  the  weaknesses  in  the  teaching  of 
geography  can  be  traced  to  the  lack  of  definiteness  in 
teaching  a  unit  of  work.  The  teacher  agrees  with  the 
general  aims,  but  does  not  sufficiently  analyze  her  work 
to  insure  that  she  has  certain  immediate  objectives 
leading   in   the   direction   of   the   generalized   aims.. 

Suggestions  for  Further  Study : 

1.  Select  the  aim  that  you  consider  of  greatest  significance  and 
give  reasons  for  your  selection. 

2.  What  relation  should  exist  between  cultural  and  practical 
aims  ?    Are    the    two    groups    of    aims    incompatible    in    the    same 

situation  ? 

3.  Select  a  geographical  topic  and  indicate  the  immediate  aims 
that  you  would  hope  to  realize,  and  note  the  relation  of  these  imme- 
diate aims  to  the  general  aims  in  teaching  geography. 


AIMS  71 

4.  Indicate  how  you  would  expect  to  realize  the  aims  noted  in 
exercise  3. 

5.  What  is  the  value  of  well-defined  aims? 

6.  Indicate  how  the  aim  of  the  teacher  and  the  aim  of  the  pupil 
in  relation  to  the  same  unit  of  work  may  be  different. 


Selected  References : 

Allen,  Nellie  B.  "  Power  versus  Knowledge  as  the  Aim  in  the 
Teaching  of  Geography,"  Journal  of  Education  (19 19),  Vol. 
LXXXIX,  pp.   233-234. 

Baker,  Zoxia.  "  Lost  Opportunities  in  Teaching  Geography," 
Journal  of  Geography  (191 6),  Vol.  XIV,  pp.   295-298. 

Brigham,  A.  P.  "  Present-Day  Need  for  Geography,"  American 
Schoolmaster  (1920),  Vol.  XIII,  pp.  61-63. 

Cook,  J.  P.  "  Primary  Aims  in  Geography  Teaching  in  the  Gram- 
mar Grades,"  Journal  of  Geography  (1911),  Vol.  IX,  pp.  203-208. 

Dodge,  R.  E.  "  The  /Esthetic  Side  of  Geography,  —  Beauty  in 
Landscape  Forms,"  Journal  of  Geog?-aphy  (191 5),  Vol.  XIII, 
pp.   302-305. 

Gregory,  W.  M.  "  Symposium  on  what  is  most  needed  in  the 
Teaching  of  Elementary  Geography,-'  Journal  of  Geography, 
Vol.  X,  pp.   244-262. 

Henderson,  Bertha.  "  Cultural  and  Training  Value  of  Geog- 
raphy," Journal  of  Geography  (191  5),  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  97-101. 

Holtz,  F.  L.  Principles  and  Methods  of  Teaching  Geography, 
chap,  i,  pp.    1-5. 

Sutherland,  William.  The  Teaching  of  Geography,  chap,  vi, 
pp.  80-95. 

Whitbeck,  R.  H.  "  Ideals  and  Aims  in  Elementary  Geography," 
Journal  of  Geography  (191  5),  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  65-70. 


PART  TWO.     THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY 


CHAPTER    VI 
THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  A  COURSE  OF  STUDY 

Requirements.  A  course  of  study  in  geography  should 
be  graded  in  such  a  way  (i)  that  it  is  adapted  to  the 
child's  interests  and  experiences,  (2)  that  the  work  of 
the  earlier  grades  is  a  preparation  for  the  work  of  the 
later  grades,  (3)  that  the  work  of  the  earlier  grades  may 
be  reviewed  in  a  new  view  in  the  interpretation  of  upper- 
grade  topics,  and  (4)  that  a  child  leaving  school  in  any 
grade  will  have  a  fund  of  usable  knowledge.  There  are 
four  viewpoints  that  should  be  held  in  mind  in  the  or- 
ganization of  a  course  of  study :  ( 1 )  local  geography, 
(2)  journey  geography,  (3)  regional  geography,  and 
(4)  world  geography.  Home  geography  emphasizes  the 
environment  immediately  within  reach  of  the  child.  Jour- 
ney geography  involves  actual  and  imaginary  journeys 
leading  to  a  conception  of  the  earth  as  a  whole.  Regional 
geography  is  an  intensive  study  of  the  geography  of  a 
definitely  defined  region.  World  geography  is  a  consid- 
eration of  topics  from  a  world-wide  standpoint.  These 
divisions  of  geography  will  be  taken  up  in  the  grades  in 
the  order  named. 

Testing  a  course  of  study.  A  course  of  study  should  be 
theoretically  sound.  During  the  present  period  of  experi- 
mentation emphasis  is  being  placed  on  actual  results 
secured  under  ordinary  schoolroom  conditions.    It  does 

75 
f 


76      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

not  follow  that  all  topics  which  "work"  should  be  included 
in  the  geography  curriculum.  All  topics  selected,  on  the 
other  hand,  should  "work"  or  be  eliminated.  A  good 
teacher  may  succeed  with  a  poorly  selected  topic,  while 
a  poor  teacher  may  fail  with  a  well-adapted  topic.  Empir- 
ical experiences  need  to  be  carefully  evaluated  and 
checked  in  the  light  of  a  sound  theoretical  organization. 
In  the  last  analysis  the  theoretical  and  the  practical 
course  of  study,  the  one  reenforcing  the  other,  should 
be  harmonized. 


THE    INFORMAL    GEOGRAPHY   WORK   OF   THE 
PRIMARY    GRADES 

The  meaning  of  pre-gcography  work.  The  study  of 
geography  as  a  distinct  subject  in  the  school  curriculum 
is  begun  in  the  first  grade  in  a  few  schools.  In  most  in- 
stances, however,  formal  geography  work  is  begun  in  the 
third  or  the  fourth  grade.  The  child,  therefore,  has  had 
six  to  ten  years  of  experience  with  a  physical  and  social 
environment  before  taking  up  the  study  of  geography  as 
a  subject.  No  need  for  the  concept  denoted  by  the  word 
"geography"  arises  until  the  materials  dealing  with  the 
study  of  the  earth  in  relation  to  man  are  differentiated 
from  the  other  phases  of  school  work.  The  term  "pre- 
geography"  includes  those  aspects  of  the  child's  experi- 
ences, whether  accidentally  or  purposefully  acquired, 
which  constitute  a  foundational  preparation  for  the 
study    of    formal    geography. 

The  recognition  of  pre-gcography  work.  It  would  be 
a  tedious  and  difficult  beginning  for  both  teacher  and 


ORGANIZATION   OF   COURSE   OF    STUDY       77 

pupil  if  the  child,  at  the  beginning  of  his  formal  geog- 
raphy work,  had  no  conception  of  geographical  materials. 
The  teacher  who  does  not  systematically  recognize  this 
foundational  work  runs  the  risk  of  lingering  over  familiar 
material  or  of  presenting  material  for  the  assimilation  of 
which  the  child  has  had  inadequate  preparation.  The 
teacher  who  carefully  considers  the  pre-geography  work 
of  the  child  and  who  intelligently  questions  him  to  make 
sure  that  the  assumed  conceptions  are  present,  and  in 
order  to  recall  the  old  as  a  basis  of  departure  for  the  new, 
is  establishing  an  ideal  situation  for  substantial  progress. 
It  is  constantly  urged  that  the  teacher  should  relate  her 
work  to  the  child's  experiences.  The  danger  of  retard- 
ing development  by  repetition,  by  keeping  the  child  on 
work  with  which  he  is  thoroughly  familiar,  is  just  as  acute. 
A  proper  understanding  of  the  relation  of  the  old  to  the 
new  eliminates  both  dangers. 

The  acquisition  of  pre-geography  knowledge.  The 
child  has  secured  his  pre-geography  knowledge  in  the 
home,  at  play,  at  school,  and  on  various  trips  in  the  home 
community  or  elsewhere.  On  the  basis  of  need  he  has 
modified  his  environment  or  adjusted  himself  to  it.  From 
the  adult  standpoint  his  knowledge  is  limited  and  simple. 
His  problems,  however,  have  been  real,  and  perhaps  for 
him  just  as  difficult  of  solution  as  the  more  complex  prob- 
lems of  the  adult.  He  has  never  concerned  himself  with 
the  systematic  logical  organization  of  his  experiences  nor 
with  the  purposeful  acquisition  of  knowledge  because  it 
may  be  needed  by  and  by.  He  worries  little  about  the 
morrow,  but  meets  each  situation  that  arises  in  the  way 
that  seems  best  to  him. 


78      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Very  seldom,  if  ever,  is  it  the  case  that  the  pre-school 
life  of  the  child  is  planned  so  that  a  series  of  successive, 
graded,  relational  situations  will  train  toward  a  definite 
objective.  During  the  earliest  school  life  of  the  child  no 
abrupt  change  in  the  accustomed  way  of  learning  is  made. 
The  child  informally  comes  into  contact  with  situations 
similar  to  those  in  his  out-of-school  life.  There  is  this 
difference,  however.  Consciously  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher,  but  unconsciously  on  the  part  of  the  child,  the 
situations  are  systematically  arranged  in  order  of  diffi- 
culty so  as  to  bring  about  a  continuous  and  persistent 
growth  and  development.  In  addition  a  simple  organiza- 
tion of  experiences  is  accomplished.  No  formal  mention 
of  the  word  a  geography"  has  been  made,  although  if  the 
child  knows  the  word  " geography"  he  has  not  committed 
an  unpardonable  sin. 

Formal  geography  an  outgrowth  of  pre- geography. 
The  pre-geography  work  has  been  accomplished,  undif- 
ferentiated from  other  subjects,  in  relation  to  the  child's 
needs.  The  materials  are  classified  into  subjects  for 
convenience  and  for  real  or  fancied  economy  of  time  in 
teaching.  We  take  the  child  from  an  unorganized  en- 
vironment into  the  school  life,  where  he  is  given  intensive 
training.  The  transition  is  gradually  effected  from  the 
informal   to   the   formal  teaching   of   geography. 

FIRST   VIEWPOINT    OF    GEOGRAPHY 

Importance  of  the  local  environment.  Should  the  pupil 
proceed  from  the  study  of  the  world  as  a  whole  to  its  parts 
or  from  a  study  of  parts  proceed  synthetically  to  build  up 


ORGANIZATION   OF   COURSE   OF   STUDY       79 

a  concept  of  the  world  as  a  whole  ?  The  answer  lies  in  an 
understanding  of  the  law  of  apperception.  Since  the  child 
is  dependent  on  his  immediate  environment  for  an  arousal 
of  consciousness  and  increasing  intensity  of  conscious- 
ness, the  nature  of  his  actual  environment  is  very 
important.  The  early  organized  work  of  the  geography 
teacher  should  deal  particularly  with  the  geographical 
material  with  which  the  child  has  become  acquainted 
or  with  which  he  may  be  brought  into  first-hand  con- 
tact. The  teacher  is  concerned  with  the  organization 
of  the  child's  experiences  from  a  geographical  viewpoint 
and  with  the  enriching  and  enlarging  of  these  environ- 
mental experiences.  Since  many  of  the  things  with  which 
the  child  is  acquainted — as  bananas,  chocolate,  and  silk 
— have  been  secured  from  a  distance  and  specially  treated 
by  man,  the  interest  aroused  in  relation  to  environing 
things  may  be  the  means  of  introducing  the  child  in  an 
elementary  way  to  the  producing  areas.  A  teacher  should 
not  select  promiscuously  from  the  child's  past  or  present 
environment.  There  are  many  elements  of  an  environ- 
ment, even  of  an  adult,  that  make  no  strong  appeal.  As 
is  characteristic  of  the  adult,  the  child  is  greatly  stimu- 
lated by  those  factors  of  his  environment  that  have  some 
definite  relation  to  his  own  life.  Of  particular  concern  to 
the  child  is  the  way  his  physical  needs  and  wants  are  met. 
The  geography  work  in  the  lower  grades,  consequently, 
is  concerned  primarily  with  the  requirements  of  the  home 
for  food,  clothing,  shelter,  light,  fuel,  and  luxuries,  and 
with  the  means  taken  to  meet  these  requirements. 

Interest  in  the  child  life  of  foreign  lands.    Not  only  are 
children  interested  in  their  own  activities  and  relations, 


80      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

but  they  are  also  interested,  through  contrasts  and  com- 
parisons, in  the  experiences  of  people,  especially  chil- 
dren, of  other  lands.  The  lower  grades,  therefore,  should 
provide  for  a  consideration  of  types  of  people  in  different 
environments.  The  human  types  that  have  been  empha- 
sized have  been  selected  because  of  some  dominant  physi- 
cal factor  in  the  environment.  In  some  instances  several 
outstanding  influences  are  related  to  the  same  group,  as 
may  be  seen  in  the  following  classification : 

Latitude 

i.  High:  Eskimo,  Laplander. 

2.  Intermediate:  local  type,  as  the  St.  Louis,  Chicago,  or 

Boston  type. 

3.  Low:  Xegro,  Amazon  Indian,  Filipino. 

Altitude 

1 .  Lowlands  :   Dutch. 

2.  Highlands :  Swiss. 

Rainfall 

1.  Desert:   Arab 

2.  Hot,  rainy  lowlands:  Xegro,  Amazon  Indian. 

Land  mass 

1.  Coastal:   English,  Norwegians. 

2.  Interior:    Russians. 

Deserts 

1 .  Hot :   Arab. 

2.  Cold  :    Eskimo. 

Contrasted  civilization 

1.  Occidental:   local  type. 

2.  Oriental:  Chinese,  Japanese. 

Historical  contrasts 

1.  Present :   local  type. 

2.  Past :   Indian. 


ORGANIZATION    OF   COURSE   OF    STUDY       81 

Each  type  is  developed  as  a  unit.  In  story  form  the 
children  follow  and  live  through  the  activities  of  the 
Eskimo  child.  Not  only  do  they  contrast  Eskimo  life 
with  their  own,  but  as  the  successive  types  are  consid- 
ered each  type  is  also  contrasted  with  the  various  types 
previously  studied. 

During  the  early  period  that  the  organizing  centers  for 
geography  are  found  in  the  child's  environment  the 
teacher  gives  the  child  much  practice  in  the  direct  obser- 
vation of  materials.  The  class  makes  an  elementary 
study  of  available  land  forms  and  visits  industrial  plants 
where  the  processes  and  materials  are  sufficiently  simple. 
Care  is  taken  to  avoid  a  complex  environment  which  is 
too  difficult  or  too  far  removed  from  the  child's  interests. 

Diversity  of  materials  emphasized.  The  first  view  of 
organized  geography  emphasizes  the  organization  of  and 
additional  contact  with  the  materials  of  the  immediate 
environment  and  lightly  touches  on  the  producing  areas. 
The  local  life  is  the  big  organizing  center.  The  teacher 
depends  largely  on  visualization  material.  Using  the  cot- 
ton garments  of  the  children  as  a  point  of  departure,  the 
teacher  may  appeal  to  their  curiosity  to  learn  how  the 
cotton  garment  came  to  be.  The  children  are  shown  a 
cotton  boll,  the  cotton  is  separated  by  them  from  the 
seeds,  and  the  threads  are  woven  into  cloth.  The  child  is 
not  merely  told  the  relation  between  raw  cotton  and  wear- 
ing apparel,  but  actual  materials  are  given  him  to  handle. 
In  the  absence  of  actual  material  the  teacher  depends  on 
the  picture,  which  is  the  symbolic  material  most  nearly 
representing  the  cotton  boll.  The  child  has  no  adequate 
foundation  for  a  detailed  exhaustive  study  of  any  topic, 


82      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

but  is  securing,  through  the  points  of  contact  with  a 
diversity  of  materials,  numerous  initial  concepts  that, 
through  enrichment  in  the  successive  grades,  will  consti- 
tute a  valuable  nucleus  for  further  development. 

SECOND    VIEWPOINT   OF    GEOGRAPHY 

Building  up  a  concept  of  the  earth  as  a  whole.  The  dis- 
tant regions  are  now  considered  in  relation  to  their  domi- 
nant or  outstanding  characteristics.  Cotton,  which  was 
considered  in  relation  to  clothing,  is  now  considered  in 
relation  to  a  cotton  plantation.  The  rather  vague  idea 
aroused  concerning  cotton  production  is  now  elaborated 
through  a  detailed  type  study.  Similar  detailed  type 
studies  are  made  of  a  tea  plantation,  a  coffee  plantation,  a 
wheat  farm,  a  stock  farm,  a  diamond  mine,  a  fruit  farm, 
etc.  Through  the  detailed  study  of  widely  distributed 
areas  in  relation  to  the  production,  manufacture,  or  hand- 
ling of  some  article  with  which  the  child  is  acquainted, 
various  parts  of  the  earth  gradually  become  meaningful  to 
the  child.  An  attempt  is  made  to  build  up  a  general  con- 
cept of  the  earth  as  a  whole.  The  local  area  is  the  radi- 
ating nucleus  for  a  consideration  of  remote  areas. 

Journey  geography  and  type  studies.  The  various  areas 
should  be  definitely  related  to  the  home  area  as  to  direc- 
tion, distance  in  miles  and  time,  and  land  and  water  routes 
connecting  the  two  areas.  This  will  help  the  child  to 
think  of  the  area  as  a  real  area  in  which  people  are  living 
and  making  desirable  adjustments  to  the  resources.  The 
area  will  be  thought  of  as  a  part  of  the  earth  as  a  whole, 
of  which  the  home  unit  is  another  part.  The  child's 
interest  in  the  remote  area  is  aroused  not  only  because  of 


ORGANIZATION  OF  COURSE  OF  STUDY         83 

the  products  with  which  he  is  acquainted  that  originate 
therein  but  also  through  this  relating  of  the  far-away 
lands  to  his  home  region.  Those  who  would  emphasize 
this  gradual  upbuilding  of  a  conception  of  the  world  as  a 
whole,  through  relating  the  areas  studied  to  the  home 
region  and  to  each  other,  have  spoken  of  this  work  as 
"journey  geography."  Those  who  consider  that  the 
really  significant  thing  is  the  detailed  study  of  an  impor- 
tant unit  of  work  in  widely  distributed  areas,  and  that  the 
relating  of  the  region  studied  is  primarily  a  motivating 
step,  through  the  realistic  areal  relations  established,  have 
spoken  of  this  work  as  "type  studies,"  or  as  studies  of 
organizing  centers.  Whether  one  thinks  of  journey  geog- 
raphy leading  to  type  studies  or  of  type  studies  ap- 
proached through  journey  geography,  the  completed  unit 
of  work  is  essentially  the  same. 

THIRD    VIEWPOINT    OF    GEOGRAPHY 

Regional  geography.  The  next  viewpoint  of  geography 
involves  a  systematic  study  of  the  regions  of  the  earth. 
The  children  first  consider  their  needs  and  wants,  then 
they  consider  characteristic  conditions  under  which  the 
products  to  meet  these  needs  and  wants  are  produced. 
Their  elementary  acquaintance  with  different  parts  of  the 
earth  has  prepared  them  for  the  advanced  step  of  study- 
ing regional  units.  In  the  first  viewpoint  the  emphasis 
was  the  immediate  environment;  in  the  second  viewpoint 
the  emphasis  was  a  consideration  of  how  the  remote  areas 
serve  the  local  community,  and  an  interest  was  aroused  in 
widely  distributed  areas.  The  second  viewpoint  repre- 
sents  an   easy   transition    from   emphasis   on   the   local 


84      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

environment  to  emphasis  on  the  local  environments  of 
other  groups  of  people,  widely  distributed. 

Political  units.  For  purposes  of  administration  the 
land  areas  have  been  divided  into  unequal  parts  called 
political  units.  The  boundaries,  dependent  in  part  on  the 
unequal  pressure  exerted  by  contiguous  groups  of  people, 
are  in  numerous  instances  artificial,  dividing  areas  that 
geographically  are  one.  For  working  purposes  the  politi- 
cal unit,  whether  city,  county,  state,  or  nation,  is  a  coher- 
ent unit.  Statistical  data,  collected  by  the  governments, 
are  ordinarily  based  on  the  political  unit.  In  the  prepara- 
tion of  geographic  data,  consequently,  authors  have  found 
that  the  political  unit  can  be  more  conveniently  handled. 
The  material  presented,  moreover,  is  organized  in  relation 
to  a  group  with  common  political  aspirations,  and  there- 
fore a  group  whose  interests,  theoretically,  are  in  com- 
mon. The  geographic  units  and  parts  of  geographic  units 
within  the  political  unit  are  given  special  consideration. 
Frequently  the  parts  of  a  geographic  unit  are  not  related 
adequately  to  the  larger  geographic  unit,  although  this  is 
a  shortcoming  that  can  readily  be  eliminated.  This  type 
of  regional  geography  approaches  the  study  of  the  region 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  social  organization  in  control 
and  uses  the  activities  of  the  people  as  a  means  of 
interpreting  the  physical  background. 

Natural  regions  or  geographic  provinces.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  the  earth  should  be  divided  into  natural 
regions,  or  geographic  provinces,  as  a  basis  for  geographic 
study.  In  each  region  with  a  similar  physical  environ- 
ment the  people  react  characteristically.  A  political 
boundary  line  running  athwart  the  region  will  not,  in  the 


ORGANIZATION  OF  COURSE  OF  STUDY         85 

long  run,  essentially  modify  the  activities  of  the  people  on 
either  side  of  the  line.  Whether  the  natural  unit,  there- 
fore, is  included  in  a  country,  or  whether  it  is  a  part  of 
several  countries,  because  of  the  similarities  in  adjust- 
ments throughout  the  region  it  is  argued  that  an  economy 
in  time  is  effected,  that  a  more  nearly  accurate  conception 
of  life  relations  is  given,  that  the  material  can  be  more 
desirably  organized  for  presentation,  and  that  the  problem 
method  of  attack  can  be  more  readily  used.  Political 
boundaries  may  be  sweepingly  changed  as  a  result  of  the 
vagaries  of  war ;  physical  boundaries  change  very  slowly. 

The  political  units  would  not  be  neglected.  The  pupil 
would  learn  of  their  positions  in  relation  to  the  physical 
background.  Noting  the  regions  and  parts  of  natural 
regions  included  in  the  country,  and  having  a  conception 
of  the  characteristic  adjustments  in  each  province,  the 
pupil  is  in  a  position  to  appreciate  not  only  the  resources 
of  a  particular  country  but  also  the  extent  to  which  these 
resources,  through  a  division  of  provinces,  are  shared  with 
adjacent  countries.  The  study  of  geographic  units  does 
not  bar  the  teacher  from  approaching  or  motivating  the 
unit  through  a  political  area.  The  suggestion  for  the 
study  of  a  natural  region  may  come  through  the  consider- 
ation of  a  country  in  which  the  region  is  contained  or  in 
which  the  region  is  characteristically  represented. 

Order  in  which  to  study  regions.  The  order  in  which 
regions  should  be  studied  will  depend,  in  part,  on  the  loca- 
tion of  the  school.  If  the  school  is  located  in  a  great  com- 
mercial and  industrial  center,  —  St.  Louis,  for  example, — 
a  systematic  study  of  the  factors  contributing  to  its  loca- 
tion and  development  may  be  made.    A  general  view  of 


86      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

the  United  States  suggests  the  location  of  this  city  toward 
the  center  of  the  great  interior  depression,  to  the  east  of 
which  is  the  great  eastern  section  and  to  the  west  of  which 
is  the  great  western  section  of  the  United  States.  The 
great  interior  depression  will  be  divided  into  appropriate 
provinces  for  study,  and  through  the  close  economic  and 
social  relations  between  this  area  and  the  eastern  and 
western  sections  will  be  found  approaches  for  a  similar 
detailed  study  of  the  rest  of  the  United  States.  The  con- 
cepts developed  in  connection  with  the  regional  study  of 
the  United  States  form  a  basis  for  a  rapid  interpretation 
of  geographic  provinces  elsewhere.  The  geography  of  the 
United  States,  in  fact,  becomes  a  measuring  rod  by  means 
of  which  other  regional  units  are  quickly  mastered.  Per- 
haps the  study  of  Europe  is  next  approached  through  the 
historic,  economic,  social,  political,  and  blood  ties  that 
relate  the  two  areas.  Since  Europe  has  been  the  great 
modern  colonizer,  the  other  areas — Latin  America,  Asia, 
Africa,  and  Australia — are  considered  not  only  in  rela- 
tion to  the  United  States  but  also  in  relation  to  Europe. 
Many  teachers  prefer  to  study  South  America  imme- 
diately after  the  study  of  North  America  (i)  because 
South  America  is  a  part  of  the  New  World  and  through 
the  Monroe  Doctrine  has  special  relations  with  the  United 
States,  (2)  because  South  America  extends  far  enough 
southward  from  the  equator  so  that  the  two  continents 
together  give  all  ranges  of  climates  in  both  hemispheres 
and  therefore  a  marked  contrast  of  products,  (3)  because 
South  America  is  in  a  relatively  early  state  of  develop- 
ment, and  (4)  because  South  America  consists  of  large, 
simple  geographical  units. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  COURSE  OF  STUDY         87 

FOURTH  VIEWPOINT  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

An  international  breadth  of  view  desirable.  Through 
improved  transportation  facilities,  and  the  consequent 
opportunity  of  moving  commodities  readily,  the  world- 
wide production  of  important  articles  tends  to  determine 
prices.  Materials  are  redistributed  in  accordance  with 
world-wide  demands.  The  local  community,  moreover, 
is  dependent  on  remote  areas  for  many  products,  while 
the  surplus  of  the  local  area  may  be  transported  to 
remote  areas  to  satisfy  a  corresponding  demand.  As  a 
climax  to  his  geography  course  it  is  desirable,  therefore, 
that  the  pupil  shall  secure  a  world-wide  view  of  the 
more  fundamental  products,  problems,  and  principles 
affecting  man. 

The  world-wide  production  and  consumption  of  each 
significant  product — as  wheat,  corn,  potatoes,  sugar, 
coffee,  cotton,  cattle,  hogs,  sheep,  coal,  and  iron — should 
be  considered.  Among  other  topics  may  be  mentioned 
land  and  water  distributions,  climatic  diversity,  distribu- 
tion of  population,  the  trunk  land  and  water  routes,  and 
the  distribution  and  relative  importance  of  political  units, 
including  colonial  possessions.  Mathematical  geography 
—  involving  the  planetary  relations  of  the  earth  to  the 
sun  and  the  consequences  of  the  earth's  form,  size,  rota- 
tion, and  revolution — should  be  emphasized. 

Logical  and  psychological  order  of  development  in 
harmony.  The  suggestive  organization  of  a  course  of 
study  as  presented  in  this  chapter  not  only  unfolds  the 
subject  in  a  logical,  systematic  fashion,  but  is  also  care- 
fully related  to  the  developing  interests  and  increasing 


88  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

experiences  of  the  pupil.  The  pupil  is  led  by  easy  steps 
from  a  consideration  of  his  local  environment  to  a  con- 
sideration of  the  environment  of  other  people ;  an  inten- 
sive study  of  the  various  types  of  environment  is  made 
through  regional  geography  ;  and  finally,  after  an  inten- 
sive study  of  parts  is  made,  the  child  notes  the  world-wide 
relations  of  parts  as  they  definitely  affect  man.  The 
course  takes  the  child  in  the  local  environment  in  which 
he  happens  to  be  placed,  and  expands  it  into  a  world- 
wide environment. 

Suggestions  for  Further  Study : 

1.  Why  should  every  teacher  be  interested  in  the  whole  course  of 
study  in  geography  even  though  she  may  teach  the  work  of  only  one 
grade  ? 

2.  Compare  the  course  of  study  with  which  you  are  acquainted 
with  the  course  of  study  outlined  in  this  chapter. 

3.  Should  a  definite  geography  course  be  outlined  for  the  primary 
grades  ? 

4.  Select  a  textbook  in  geography  and  compare  it  with  the  sug- 
gested course  of  study. 

5.  How  might  a  detailed  course  of  study  be  worked  out  effectively 
by  the  geography  teachers  of  a  school  system  or  a  group  of  teachers 
from  different  rural  schools? 

6.  What  should  an  ideal  course  of  study  in  geography  contain? 

Selected  References : 

Bahkr.   Zoxia.     "Scope   of    Geography,"  Journal  of  Geography 

(1905).   Vol-    IV.  pp.   3S6-396. 
Bagu.y,  William  C.    "Geography  in  the  Intermediate  Grades," 

Journal  of  Geography  (19051.  Vol.    IV,   pp.   299-308. 
Barnks,   B.  A.    "Geography  in  the  Detroit  Elementary  Schools," 

Journal  of  Geography  (1 91 6),  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  144-150. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  COURSE  OF  STUDY         89 

Brigham,  A.  P.  "  Report  of  Committee  on  Geography,''  /Iwerican 
Education  (1920),  Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  300-307. 

Childs,  Breta  W.  "  Study  in  Home  Geography,"  Journal  of 
Geography  (1920),  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  154-158. 

Calkins,  R.  D.  "  Commercial  Geography  from  the  Regional  Point 
of  View,"  Journal  of  Geography  (1918;,  Vol.  XVII,  pp.  18-25. 

Dickersox,  R.  E.  "  Improvement  of  Geography  Teaching,  "Journal 
of  Geography  ('1915),  Vol.  XIII,  pp.  297-30 1 . 

Dodge,  R.  E.  "  Course  of  Study  in  Geography,"  Journal  of  Geog- 
raphy (1908),  Vol.  VII,  pp.  7-14. 

Dryer,  C.  R.  "  Regional  Geography,"  foimial  of  Geography  ( 1 9 1 2), 
Vol.  XI,  pp.  73-76. 

Fairbanks,  H.  YV.  "  Organization  of  an  Ideal  Course  in  Geog- 
raphy,"  Journal  of  Geography  (1919),  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  233-237. 

Freeman,  Frank  N.  The  Psychology  of  the  Common  Branches, 
chap,  viii,  pp.  1 61-178. 

KiRCinvKY,  C.  B.  "Geography  in  the  Junior  High  School  —  Its 
Relation  to  Elementary  School  and  to  Senior  High  School  Geog- 
raphy," Journal  of  Geography  (1916).  Vol.   XIV,  pp.  291-294. 

McMurry,  Charles.  Course  of  Study  in  the  Eight  Grades, 
pp.    123-139. 

Sutherland,  W.  F.  "  Course  of  Study  in  Geography,"'  Journal 
of  Geography  (191 2),  Vol.  XI.  pp.  126-129. 

Thomas,  Helen  Goss.  "How  shall  we  teach  Geography  ?"  Jour- 
nal of  Geography  (1920),  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  250-254. 

"Geography  in  the  St.  Louis  Schools,"  Journal  of  Geography  (19 18), 
Vol.  XVII,  pp.  r 22- 1 27. 

"  Regional  Geography  in  a  Course  of  Instruction  for  the  Seventh 
Grade,  Massachusetts  Manual,"  Journal  of  Geography  (1919), 
Vol.   XVIII,   pp.   62-75. 


PART  THREE.    THE  MATERIALS  OF 
GEOGRAPHY 


CHAPTER  VII 
OBSERVATIONAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Nature  of  observational  geography.  Through  direct 
contact  with  the  social  and  physical  environment  many 
fundamental  impressions  are  secured.  All  direct  experi- 
ences with  geographical  materials  are  phases  of  observa- 
tional geography.  The  small  child  observes  that  people 
wear  raincoats  and  rubbers  as  a  protection  against  a 
storm.  He  also  may  desire  similar  protection.  A  heavy 
rainfall  or  snowfall  may  make  the  roads  almost  impass- 
able. The  wind  may  cause  considerable  damage  to 
buildings.  The  warm,  sunshiny  days  may  stimulate  the 
gardens  to  grow  rapidly.  Whether  the  person  is  actively 
concerned  or  whether  he  is  a  mere  spectator,  he  is  securing 
geographical  sense  impressions  of  observational  geog- 
raphy. The  direct  interpretation  of  the  physical  environ- 
ment is  significant  to  everyone  irrespective  of  age. 

Relation  to  local  and  home  geography.  There  is  a 
tendency  to  regard  the  terms  "observational  geography," 
" local  geography,"  and  "home  geography"  as  more  or 
less  interchangeable.  Local  geography  refers  to  the  geog- 
raphy of  the  immediate  region  of  the  home,  irrespective 
of  whether  the  person  can  observe  the  materials ;  home 
geography  refers  to  the  ways  in  which  the  needs  and  wants 
of  the  homes  of  the  pupils  are  met,  and  therefore  relates 
the  homes,  in  part  at  least,  to  the  rest  of  the  world ; 

93 


94      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

observational  geography  refers  to  the  direct  experiences 
of  the  child,  whether  in  the  home,  in  his  local  community, 
or  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 

Observations  by  children  and  adults.  Observation  by  a 
child  is  different  in  degree  from  observation  by  an  adult. 
The  child  has  had  limited  experiences,  and  therefore  has  a 
limited  number  of  concepts,  most  of  which  are  but  poorly 
developed.  He  is  only  beginning  to  make  his  acquaint- 
anceship with  the  phenomena  of  the  world  and  reacts 
simply  to  the  successive  situations.  The  observations  of 
an  adult  may  be  no  more  nearly  accurate  in  so  far  as  the 
actual  elements  of  the  situation  are  concerned,  but  his 
grasp,  because  of  the  wealth  of  material  he  can  bring  to 
bear  on  the  situation,  may  be  much  more  comprehensive. 
The  child  observes  and  seeks  to  understand ;  the  adult 
observes  and  seeks  to  interpret. 

Emphasizing  observational  geography.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  school  course  observation  should  be  strongly 
emphasized.  These  observations  should  be  interesting, 
accurate,  and  as  comprehensive  as  the  state  of  develop- 
ment of  the  child  will  permit.  These  basic,  concrete  im- 
pressions form  the  material  for  the  concepts  by  means  of 
which  he  will  interpret  the  world-whole.  If  the  observa- 
tional experiences  are  inaccurate  or  but  hazily  understood, 
the  pupil's  knowledge  of  the  world-whole  will  correspond- 
ingly suffer.  The  success  of  the  teacher  of  geography  in 
the  upper  grades  is  conditioned  by  the  type  of  observa- 
tional geography  taught  in  the  lower  grades. 

Observational  geography  should  be  taught  throughout 
the  grades.  An  intelligent  adjustment  to  the  environment 
and  a  sympathetic  understanding  are  desirable  if  one  is  to 


OBSERVATIONAL  GEOGRAPHY  95 

live  most  effectively  and  most  happily.  The  reinterpreta- 
tion  of  observational  material,  with  the  aid  of  the  in- 
creased and  enriched  concepts  of  the  older  pupil,  is  as 
necessary  for  adult  success  as  the  simple  observations 
of  the  lower  grades. 

Nature  of  observations.  The  practical  utilization  of 
observational  material  in  school  involves  (1)  the  use  of 
materials  and  processes  which  are  a  part  of  the  ordinary 
environment  of  the  child,  (2)  the  bringing  of  materials  to 
the  school,  and  (3)  excursion  work,  by  means  of  which 
the  child  is  taken  to  the  materials. 

In  so  far  as  it  is  practicable,  materials  and  processes 
should  be  observed  in  their  natural  or  industrial  environ- 
ment. Since  opportunities  of  this  kind  are  very  limited 
at  the  school,  the  need  of  excursion  work  with  the  children 
is  evident.  Excursion  work  in  geography  is  primarily 
concerned  (1)  with  a  study  of  physical  forms  and  proc- 
esses, commonly  included  under  the  term  "physical 
geography,"  and  (2)  with  plant,  animal,  and  mineral 
products  and  industries,  commonly  included  under  the 
term   "  commercial   and   industrial   geography." 

EXCURSION   WORK 

Value  of  field  work.  Field  work  (1)  relates  the  school 
work  to  out-of-school  problems,  (2)  adds  interest, 
(3)  gives  concreteness  and  realism  to  the  work,  (4)  af- 
fords a  basis  for  the  schoolroom  work,  (5)  helps  the  pupil 
to  fit  himself  into  the  world  of  relationships,  (6)  teaches 
interdependence,  (7)  arouses  sympathy  for  people  of  all 
vocations,  (8)  stimulates  an  appreciation  of  the  beauti- 
ful and  useful,  (9)  indicates,  through  the  products  and 


96      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

processes,  the  wonderful  power  behind  the  world  of  affairs 
that  conditions  man's  activities  and  thus  brings  the  pupil 
into  closer  touch  with  the  Infinite,  and  (10)  shows  that 
nature,  including  man,  is  eternally  changing  and  promotes 
mobility  of  adjustment  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  Field 
work  does  not  have  a  monopoly  on  the  advantages 
above  noted,  but  a  line  of  work  that  combines  so  many 
possibilities  should  not  be  neglected. 

Reasons  jor  insufficient  field  work.  If  the  value  of 
field  work  is  recognized,  why  is  this  phase  of  geography 
not  systematically  organized  and  incorporated  as  a  part 
of  the  course  of  study?  Why  is  much  of  the  field  work 
almost  valueless  ?  To  what  extent  is  the  teacher  to 
blame?  Is  it  practicable  to  introduce  more  field  work 
into  our  schools?  How  should  more  field  work  be  intro- 
duced ?  Should  the  course  of  study  definitely  state  what 
should  be  done  in  each  grade?  Should  field  work  be 
required  or  should  it  be  optional  with  the  teacher  ?  What 
are  the  difficulties  that  a  teacher  and  superintendent  meet 
in  attempting  to  emphasize  field  work,  and  how  may 
these  difficulties  be  overcome? 

Among  the  reasons  for  the  placing  of  insufficient  em- 
phasis upon  field  work  may  be  noted  the  following : 

i.  The  teacher  was  not  taught  with  the  assistance  of 
field  trips  and  has  had  no  experiences  as  a  pupil  that 
help  her  to  appreciate  the  need.  She  was  taught  largely 
through  books  and  through  discussions  about  things.  She 
has  made  her  own  adjustment  to  her  home,  the  route  to 
school,  and  the  routine  formal  school  work.  Even  though 
she  may  now  and  then  feel  that  the  school  work  is  not 
sufficiently    related    to    real    things   and    life    situations, 


OBSERVATIONAL  GEOGRAPHY  97 

because  of  her  lack  of  knowledge  of  field  work  and  its 
revelations  she  feels  that  nothing  but  failure  would  at- 
tend her  efforts ;  or,  perhaps,  comfortably  adjusted  to  a 
minimum  of  activity  and  of  varied  experiences,  she  self- 
ishly prefers  to  substitute  the  shadow  of  knowledge  for 
the  substance. 

2.  The  pupils  may  become  unruly.  They  may  even 
become  unruly  in  the  schoolroom.  How  much. more  likely 
are  they  to  lose  all  respect  for  discipline  in  God's  great 
out-of-doors,  where  many  things  are  beckoning  hither  and 
thither.  In  many  cases  the  apparent  order  of  a  school- 
room may  be  a  surly  or  resigned  submission  to  the  inev- 
itable, and  underlying  the  surface  appearance  there  may 
be  insubordination  in  every  child,  awaiting  a  favorable 
opportunity.  The  teacher  who  has  this  type  of  order  in 
the  schoolroom  should  wisely  shun  field  work,  for  the 
opportunities  offered  to  evade  her  iron  discipline  will  be 
used  to  worry  her  into  an  early  grave.  There  is  some 
hope  that  if  such  a  teacher  should  take  a  few  field  trips 
she  might  begin  to  see  that  there  is  such  a  thing  as  secur- 
ing discipline  through  the  interests  of  the  children  in  the 
materials  of  the  world.  If  she  takes  a  few  field  trips  she 
may  either  ''make  or  break"  herself  as  a  teacher,  for 
unless  she  reforms  her  disciplinary  methods  in  the  school- 
room the  pupils  once  given  a  taste  of  real  knowledge  will 
tend  to  disrespect  her  schoolroom  tactics  more  than  ever. 
If  teacher  and  pupils  are  working  together  in  a  com- 
panionable way  in  unfolding  the  wonders  of  the  earth,  the 
advantages  of  field  work  are  such  that  teacher  and  pupils 
will  be  brought  even  closer  together.  Little  external 
discipline  is  necessary  when  the  pupils   feel  that  they, 


98  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

with  the  teacher,  are  doing  something  worth  while.  The 
teacher,  therefore,  who  is  afraid  that  her  children  will 
cause  her  too  much  trouble  by  being  unruly  should  search- 
ingly  analyze  her  schoolroom  work  and  methods. 

3.  The  attention  of  the  pupils  will  wander.  There  is  a 
tendency  for  each  pupil  to  follow  his  own  personal  inclina- 
tions in  making  observations.  The  child  tends  to  estab- 
lish relations  with  those  things  which  please  him  most. 
No  teacher  should  attempt  a  field  trip  without  a  pre- 
arranged plan,  but  she  should  be  quick  to  sense  the  imme- 
diate interests  of  the  children  and  to  build  on  these. 
Sometimes  it  is  just  as  desirable  to  follow  the  lead  of  a 
pupil  as  to  follow  the  lead  of  a  teacher.  It  is  well  to 
encourage  the  pupils  to  make  personal  observations  and 
to  follow  these  with  suggestions  or  questions.  The  wander- 
ing attention  of  the  pupils  can  be  seized  upon  by  the 
wide-awake  teacher  as  a  means  of  emphasizing  the 
opportunities  offered  by  the  trip. 

4.  The  pupils  do  not  learn  anything  new  in  field  trips. 
If  this  statement  is  true  the  reason  is  not  far  to  seek. 
Can  the  blind  lead  the  blind  with  any  certainty  of  def- 
inite progress  ?  It  is  desirable  that  a  teacher  with  this 
view  should  accustom  herself  to  an  analytical  study  of 
field  trips.  She  should  have  training  in  observing,  in 
classifying  and  in  organizing  her  observations,  and  in  con- 
sidering the  value  of  school  work  properly  related  to  field 
work. 

5.  The  public  will  disapprove.  The  patrons  of  the 
school  were  not  taught  through  field  trips.  They  think 
that  a  teacher's  place  is  in  the  schoolroom.  They  con- 
fuse field  trips  and  picnics.    Such  a  situation  must  be 


OBSERVATIONAL  GEOGRAPHY  99 

handled  as  diplomatically  and  as  patiently  as  possible. 
Parents  should  be  taken  into  our  confidence,  and  we 
should  tell  them  what  we  are  doing  and  why,  in  an  attempt 
to  get  them  to  sympathize  with  our  aims.  Written  per- 
mission of  the  parents  may  be  secured,  and  those  who  are 
unfortunate  in  not  being  permitted  to  go  along  can  be 
benefited  by  the  lively  discussions  relating  to  the  field 
trips.  Public  opposition  to  field  trips  can  be  readily 
overcome  through  a  proper  enlightenment  of  parents. 

6.  Some  of  the  children  may  be  injured.  There  is  prob- 
ably no  situation  whether  in  school  or  out  that  is  abso- 
lutely devoid  of  danger.  The  wise  teacher  will  avoid 
very  dangerous  places.  It  is  better  to  play  safe  by  tak- 
ing every  possible  precaution  to  prevent  accidents. 

7.  Many  trips  involve  transportation  charges,  which 
prevent  some  from  going.  To  deprive  any  child  of  the 
privilege  of  going  on  a  field  trip,  especially  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  field  work  fundamentally  is  important,  is  de- 
cidedly undemocratic  and  deplorable.  The  school  board 
should  provide  for  the  transportation  cost  of  field  trips 
out  of  the  school  fund  as  general  equipment  is  paid  for, 
or  at  least  those  unable  to  secure  the  needed  money  from 
home  should  be  provided  for.  In  the  meantime  it  is  bet- 
ter that  those  who  can  go  shall  be  taken  on  field  trips. 

8.  Classes  are  too  large  to  be  handled  in  the  field. 
Some  classes  are  too  large  for  schoolroom  work.  Such 
classes  will  also  be  too  large  for  effective  field  work.  The 
large  class  does  not  excuse  the  teacher  from  doing  her 
best  in  the  schoolroom,  although  she  is  laboring  under 
a  serious  handicap  ;  neither  does  it  excuse  her  from  doing 
her  best  with  the  large  group  in  a  field  trip.    Field  trips 


ioo      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

that  will  permit  the  class  to  work  in  large  groups  may  be 
selected.  Some  of  the  mothers  of  the  pupils  may  be  glad 
to  assist,  the  field  work  being  greatly  facilitated  through 
their  help.  The  principal  may  find  it  possible  to  assist 
the  teacher. 

9.  The  teacher  may  be  in  charge  of  a  class  that  is  recit- 
ing and  of  a  class  that  is  studying  at  the  same  time.  In 
such  instances  it  is  not  practicable  to  go  at  that  particu- 
lar time,  unless  arrangements  can  be  made  for  someone  to 
take  charge  of  the  room  temporarily  or  unless  both  groups 
of  pupils  can  be  taken. 

10.  The  time  involved  in  a  field  trip  is  longer  than  a 
period.  If  possible,  arrangements  should  be  made  to 
have  a  longer  period  for  the  field  work,  or,  if  necessary, 
arrangements  can  be  made  so  that  a  part  or  all  of  the 
trips  can  be  taken  after  school  or  on  Saturday. 

11.  The  superintendent  is  not  in  sympathy  with  field 
trips,  not  because  he  believes  the  field  trips  are  valueless 
but  because  they  interfere  with  the  routinized  efficiency 
of  the  school  plant.  This  is  a  serious  situation,  but  the 
enthusiastic,  self-sacrificing  teacher,  inspired  with  a  vision 
of  her  opportunity,  will  engage  in  field  work  with  the 
pupils  in  out-of-school  hours.  Gradually,  as  the  signifi- 
cance of  this  work  becomes  more  and  more  evident,  the 
school  periods  will  be  made  sufficiently  elastic  so  that  the 
real  field  work  can  be  done  on  the  same  level  as  other 
school  work. 

A  brief  survey  of  the  leading  difficulties  arising  in  con- 
nection with  field  work  indicates  that  while  there  are  diffi- 
culties, there  are  none  that  are  insurmountable.    All  lines 


OBSERVATIONAL  GEOGRAPHY  101 

of  activity,  in  school  and  out,  have  their  special  problems. 
If  field  work  is  recognized  as  having  a  marked  value 
which  no  other  type  of  activity  can  meet,  the  problem  of 
those  responsible  for  the  education  of  the  children  is  not 
to  ignore  or  slight  this  work  on  the  grounds  of  convenience 
or  inherent  difficulties,  but  manfully  to  attack  the  prob- 
lems so  that  field  work  will  be  done — done  intelligently, 
consistently,  and  persistently. 

My  resolve.  I  believe  in  observational  geography.  I 
believe  in  field  work  in  physical  and  industrial  geography. 
In  order  that  I  may  make  my  work  more  effective,  I 
resolve  that  I  will  engage  in  field  work,  whenever  and 
wherever  the  opportunity  is  offered  of  raising  the  standard 
of  geography  work.  In  order  that  I  may  plan  my  field 
trips  intelligently,  I  furthermore  resolve  that  I  will  forth- 
with proceed  to  acquaint  myself  with  the  physical  forms 
and  processes  of  my  community,  working  up  type  studies 
of  these,  that  I  will  visit  the  various  industrial  establish- 
ments of  my  locality  if  possible,  and,  if  this  is  not  pos- 
sible, that  I  will  secure  detailed  information  concerning 
them.  So  help  me,  Mr.  Superintendent,  and  keep  me 
steadfast  and  true. 

Nature  of  physical-geography  field  trips.  The  nature 
of  the  field  work  in  physical  geography  is  determined  by 
the  types  of  physical  forms  and  processes  that  are  avail- 
able. In  a  volcanic  region,  in  a  glaciated  region,  or  along 
the  seacoast  the  field  work  will  differ  somewhat  from 
the  field  work  in  a  region  where  rivers,  with  their  help- 
ing agencies,  have  largely  determined  the  forms  and  proc- 
esses.   In  preparing  herself  for  field  work  the  teacher  may 


102  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

approach  the  subject  in  the  following  way:  a  general 
survey  of  the  principal  forms  and  processes ;  the  general 
distribution  of  these  forms  and  processes,  with  particular 
reference  to  the  United  States;  the  prevailing  forms  in 
the  physiographic  region  in  which  she  lives ;  a  specific 
consideration  of  the  particular  forms  and  processes  that 
are  available  for  first-hand  consideration.  If  a  teacher  is 
living  in  a  region  where  the  work  of  running  water,  with 
helping  agencies,  primarily  has  been  concerned,  she  will 
be  interested  in  noting  the  divides  and  valleys;  how  the 
valleys  are  being  widened,  deepened,  and  lengthened ;  the 
rapidity  with  which  these  changes  are  going  on ;  rapids, 
falls,  meanders,  currents  ;  materials  being  transported  and 
deposited  ;  the  nature  of  the  materials  ;  the  relation  of  trib- 
utary valleys  to  main  valleys ;  the  effects  of  topography 
on  human  relations ;  and  floods.  Her  problem  primarily 
involves  the  making  of  accurate,  searching  observations 
and  the  interpretation  of  the  facts  noted. 

Nature  of  commercial-geography  field  trips.  The  prob- 
lem with  respect  to  products  and  industries  is  somewhat 
similar.  What  are  the  principal  products  and  industries, 
how  are  they  distributed,  what  raw  materials  are  secured 
in  your  neighborhood,  and  what  disposition  is  made  of 
surplus  products  ?  What  materials  are  brought  into  the 
neighborhood  and  what  use  is  made  of  them?  What  in- 
dustries are  carried  on,  what  raw  materials  are  used,  what 
products  are  obtained,  and  what  disposition  is  made  of 
them  ?  What  is  the  significance  of  the  industries  of  the 
neighborhood  to  the  people?  Observe  industries  and 
materials  carefully  and  seek  to  interpret  correctly  the 
facts  ascertained. 


OBSERVATIONAL  GEOGRAPHY  103 

Preparation  of  the  teacher.  Not  until  the  teacher  has 
a  detailed  knowledge  of  local  physical  forms  and  indus- 
tries is  she  qualified  to  become  an  expert  teacher  of 
geography.  Even  then  she  is  not  qualified  unless  she 
also  understands  methods  in  relation  to  child  growth.  The 
teacher  who  lacks  knowledge  or  who  lacks  correct  methods 
is  to  be  pitied ;  the  teacher  who  lacks  both  knowledge  and 
correct  methods  should  not  be  tolerated. 

Some  teachers  may  feel  that  the  requirements  sug- 
gested are  so  high  that  they  never  can  become  good  teach- 
ers. An  unattainable  ideal  has  not  been  pictured ;  an 
ideal  has  been  set  forth  that  few  teachers  have  reached. 
Unless  one  has  met  these  requirements,  is  it  wise  to  engage 
in  field  work?  Field  work  fundamentally  is  important 
for  both  teacher  and  pupils.  A  group  of  boys  and  girls 
stimulated  by  a  common  situation  learn  much  from  each 
other.  It  may  be  practicable  to  take  a  field  trip  with  chil- 
dren even  though  the  teacher  does  not  know  much  more 
about  the  materials  than  the  children.  Teacher  and  pupils 
can  learn  together.  The  pupils  may  not  derive  so  much 
benefit  from  such  a  trip,  but  the  teaching  will  be  much 
more  efficient  as  a  whole  than  if  field  work  is  omitted  alto- 
gether. Gradually  the  teacher  will  broaden  her  experi- 
ences and  become  more  and  more  proficient  in  directing 
pupils.  The  poor  pupils  on  whom  she  practices  will  suffer. 
They  will  not  suffer  nearly  so  much  as  they  would  if  field 
work  were  altogether  avoided. 

A  teacher  should  carefully  consider  the  various  factors 
involved  in  a  field  trip.  She  should  not  let  her  enthu- 
siasm run  away  with  her  good  judgment.  A  single  accident 
will  seriously  retard  the  possibilities  of  further  developing 


104  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

field  geography.  Some  industrial  establishments  are  un- 
safe for  any  classes  of  elementary-school  pupils.  Short, 
trips  near  the  school  at  noontime,  at  recess,  or  after  school 
may  be  taken  with  pupils  who  are  interested.  A  teacher 
will  find  these  simple  trips  so  appealing,  so  helpful,  and 
so  comparatively  easy  that  by  degrees  she  will  come  to 
feel  that  she  can  tackle  the  longer  trips.  Splendid  geo- 
graphic material  is  usually  close  at  hand,  often  no  farther 
away  than  a  stone's  throw  from  the  school  building. 

Measuring  the  success  of  field  work.  Children  should 
be  encouraged  to  make  supplementary  observations  and 
reports.  Pupils  who  take  temporary  trips  to  other  regions 
should  be  encouraged  to  make  observations  and  to  report 
their  experiences  to  the  class.  Observational  geography 
should  never  be  finished  in  so  far  as  the  pupils  are  con- 
cerned. The  field  work  of  the  school  should  be  regarded 
merely  as  a  point  of  departure  for  continued  growth  along 
this  line.  A  teacher  can  measure  the  success  of  her  work 
in  part  by  the  extent  to  which  she  has  realized  her  content 
aim,  in  part  by  the  interest  and  enthusiasm  in  field  work 
that  has  been  aroused. 

Bringing  materials  and  activities  to  the  child.  The 
ideal  situation  is  to  take  the  pupils  to  the  places  where  the 
actual  work,  whether  of  man  or  nature,  is  being  accom- 
plished under  normal  conditions.  In  one's  own  com- 
munity, however,  there  are  factories  which  for  some 
reason,  perhaps  because  of  danger  or  because  of  the 
policy  of  the  company,  are  not  available  for  first-hand 
study.  Such  industries  should  not  be  ignored.  It  may 
be  possible  to  secure  samples  of  materials  or  to  set  up 
simple  experiments  or  demonstrations  that  will  help  the 


OBSERVATIONAL  GEOGRAPHY  105 

children  to  understand  such  industries.  Special  investiga- 
tions may  be  made  by  members  of  the  class  who  are  able 
individually  to  secure  permission  to  inspect  the  factory. 
If  the  children  cannot  be  taken  to  the  factory,  as  much  of 
the  factory  as  possible  should  be  brought  to  the  children. 

Some  industrial  units — as  a  cotton,  coffee,  or  tea  planta- 
tion— may  be  unavailable  for  first-hand  study  because  of 
remoteness.  If  industries  must  be  discussed  in  the  school- 
room, it  is  good  pedagogy  to  have  as  much  observational 
material  as  possible  on  hand  to  make  the  presentation  as 
concrete  and  realistic  as  possible. 

Collections  by  individuals  should  be  encouraged.  The 
opportunities  of  children  to  secure  materials  are  varied. 
Collections  of  local  products  are  particularly  relevant.  One 
child  may  make  a  collection  pertaining  to  the  corn  plant 
and  its  products  or  to  the  wheat  plant  and  its  products. 
Another  child  may  be  able  to  secure  through  correspond- 
ence or  through  some  older  person  samples  of  products 
from  a  distance,  as  gold  ore  from  Alaska,  copper  ore 
from  Montana,  or  crude  oil  from  Oklahoma.  The  interest 
of  the  child  in  his  own  collection  is  personal  and  intense. 

Materials  cannot  always  be  secured  by  the  children  at 
the  time  that  they  are  needed.  There  arises,  therefore,  the 
need  of  accumulating  materials  that  will  be  available  at 
any  time.  Out  of  the  needs  of  the  pupils  and  teachers 
has  arisen  the  educational  museum.  Pupils  and  teachers 
may  gradually  accumulate  materials.  Such  a  museum  is 
of  great  value  to  all  children  who  have  been  concerned 
in  its  formation,  but  it  also  has  more  of  the  personal 
element  in  it  for  future  classes  than  formal  museum 
material  that  is  purchased  ready-made.    It  is  not  always 


106  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

possible  to  secure  through  the  pupils  the  materials  needed. 
In  response  to  this  need  for  material  not  readily  secured, 
companies  have  been  formed  for  the  purpose  of  collecting 
and  arranging  materials.  The  teachers  thus  may  be  re- 
lieved of  the  task  of  securing  materials  on  the  basis  of 
need,  and  are  not  disappointed  because  of  inability  to 
secure  materials  as  needed.  Such  museum  cabinets  un- 
fortunately tend  to  remove  the  personal  element.  The 
museum  material  tends  to  become  a  part  of  the  formal, 
mechanical  equipment  of  the  school,  much  superior  to  the 
former  abstract  teaching,  but  pedagogically  inferior  to 
the  personal  collections. 

Is  it  possible  to  combine  the  advantages  of  the  personal 
collections  and  the  formal  museum  material,  and  at  the 
same  time  reduce  to  a  minimum  their  respective  disad- 
vantages ?  Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  make  individ- 
ual collections.  The  teacher  should  cast  the  weight  of  her 
influence  in  this  direction  by  showing  her  appreciation  of 
all  attempts  of  pupils  in  this  direction.  She  should  make 
them  feel  that  she  values  much  more  highly  their  collec- 
tions than  the  formal  museum  material.  The  discussion, 
when  practicable,  should  center  about  the  informal  ma- 
terial to  the  neglect  of  the  regular  museum  material.  The 
museum  material  can  be  used  as  a  check  upon  the  ma- 
terials of  the  children.  Materials  of  the  museum  should 
be  correlated  or  associated  with  the  materials  of  the  chil- 
dren. If  the  children  cannot  secure  the  needed  material, 
then,  and  only  then,  as  the  next  best  plan,  is  it  advisable 
to  place  considerable  emphasis  on  the  museum  material. 
Since  much  of  the  material  of  value  can  be  secured  only 
through   the   formal   educational   museum,  every  school 


OBSERVATIONAL  GEOGRAPHY  107 

system  should  have  a  liberal  appropriation  for  the  up- 
building of  a  museum.  Many  materials,  however,  as 
ores,  seeds,  nuts,  etc.,  can  be  secured  in  quantities,  as 
laboratory  material  in  general  is  secured,  and  the  pupils, 
with  the  help  of  the  teacher,  can  classify  and  arrange  the 
materials  to  much  greater  advantage  than  through  the 
mere  observation  of  material  that  has  been  already  sys- 
tematically arranged  and  classified. 

Results.  If  the  needed  emphasis  is  placed  on  observa- 
tional geography,  the  child  will  become  widely  acquainted 
with  his  own  environment  and  will  have  the  ability  and 
desire  to  keep  himself  acquainted  with  changes ;  he  will 
appreciate  the  interdependencies  in  his  own  community 
and  the  relations  of  his  community  to  the  world-whole  as 
it  actually  exists ;  he  will  have  a  measuring  rod  by  means 
of  which  extra-community  geography  can  be  understood ; 
he  will  believe  more  thoroughly  in  school  work,  because 
it  actually  is  dealing  with  things  worth  while. 

Suggestions  for  Further  Study : 

1.  Make  a  list  of  topographic  forms  and  processes  that  may  be 
observed  in  your  community.  Make  a  supplementary  list  indicating 
the  forms  and  processes  that  cannot  be  observed  in  your  community. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  industrial  establishments  that  are  in  your  neigh- 
borhood and  indicate  (a)  those  to  which  access  cannot  be  secured, 
(b)  those  to  which  it  would  not  be  wise  to  take  children,  although 
the  teacher  might  profitably  observe,  and  (c)  those  that  are  available 
for  visits  with  children. 

3.  Select  a  definite  industry  in  each  class  as  indicated  in  exercise  2 
and  indicate  in  detail  the  use  that  might  be  made  of  each  industry 
educationally. 

4.  Make  a  list  of  products  that  might  profitably  be  brought  into 
the  schoolroom  and  suggest  desirable  ways  of  using  them. 


108  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

5.  Make  an  individual  collection  of  products  that  are  available 
in  your  community. 

6.  Compare  the  relative  value  of  exhibit  materials  secured  and 
organized  by  the  children  with  those  organized  by  commercial  firms 
for  school  use. 


Selected  References : 

Baber,  Zonia.    "  Field  Work  in  the  Elementary  School,"  Journal 

of  Geography ;  Vol.  IV,  pp.  1S-22. 
Carney,  Frank.    "  Observational  Work  for  Children,"  Journal  of 

Geography.  Vol.  IV.  pp.  12-17. 
Davis.    W.    M.     "  Home    Geography,*'  Journal    of   Geography, 

Vol.  IV,  pp.    1-5. 
Dodge.   R.   E.,  and   Kirchwey,   C.   B.    Teaching  of   Geography, 

chap.    xi.   pp.    135-153;    chap,   xvii,   pp.    217-244;    chap,    xiii, 

pp.    1 64-1  Si. 
Him:.    L.   W.    "  Function  of   the   School    Excursion,-'  Journal  of 

Geography,  Vol.   IV,  pp.  446-450. 
HoLTZ,    F.   L.     Principles  and   Methods   of   Teaching  Geography, 

chap.   iii.   pp.  13-19:    chap,  v,  pp.  30-40;  chap,  vi,  pp.  44-59. 
Howe,   Elizabeth.     "  Can  the  Collecting   Instinct  he   Utilized  in 

Teaching?-'  Elementaiy  School  TeacJier,  Vol.  VI,  p.   466. 
Jefferson,    M.    "  Out-of-door  Work  in    Geography,"  Journal  of 

Geography,  Vol.   IV,  pp.   49-57. 
McMuRRY,    Charles.     Special    Method   in   Geography,   chap,   vii, 

pp.    1 01- 1  17. 
Parkins.    A.    E.     ''Teaching    the   Geography   of   a   Small    Area,'' 

Journal  of  Geography  (1920),   Vol.   XIX.   pp.    130-140. 
Reiiway,    Jacques.     The    New    Basis    of    Geography,    chap,    xi, 

PP-  '  35-1  53. 
Sutherland,  William.    The  Teaching  of  Geography,  chap,  iii, 

PP-   3'^   52:   chap,  xviii,   pp.   202-217:  chap,   xix,   pp.   217-235. 
Wooster,    L.    I).    "The    Beginnings   of  Geography,"  Journal  of 

Geography  (1917).   Vol.   XVI,   pp.   21-25. 
"Geography    at    Council    Bluffs,    Iowa,"'  Journal   of   Geography, 

Vol.    IV,   pp.   S6-92. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
REPRESENTATIVE,    OR    SYMBOLIC,    GEOGRAPHY 

Value  oj  symbols.  Since  the  child  will  have  an  oppor- 
tunity of  observing  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  geo- 
graphic material  that  he  will  study,  effective  devices  must 
be  employed  to  assist  him  in  picturing  vividly  and 
accurately  situations  far  away.  Symbols  must  be  substi- 
tuted. During  the  period  that  observational  work  was 
being  stressed  the  child  needed  symbols  as  a  means  of 
expressing  and  recording  his  observations.  On  the  basis 
of  need  symbols  were  adopted,  in  accordance  with  his  own 
ideas  or  at  the  suggestion  of  the  teacher,  to  represent 
certain  concepts. 

When  the  teacher  is  ready  to  enter  into  a  detailed 
study  of  the  geography  of  the  world-whole,  the  pupils 
have  a  mastery  of  symbols  by  means  of  which  they  can 
intelligently  interpret  conditions  elsewhere.  If  they  have 
learned  to  express  themselves  in  terms  of  symbols  that 
are  generally  employed,  they  will  be  able  readily  to  in- 
terpret the  symbols  of  others.  Representative  geography, 
therefore,  involves  the  adoption  and  use  of  symbols  for 
the  expression  of  thought,  and  the  interpretation  of  the 
thoughts  of  others  through  the  use  of  symbols.  Without 
a  common  language  of  symbols  it  would  be  practically 
impossible  for  man  to  profit  through  social  inheritance ; 
it  would  be  practically  impossible  for  a  child  ever  to  pass 

109 


no  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

beyond  his  actual  experiences  in  securing  a  knowledge  of 
the  world  or  in  the  interpretation  of  remote  areas. 

The  leading  symbols  used  by  the  child  in  the  expres- 
sion of  thought  and  the  interpretation  of  the  world-whole 
are  pictures,  drawings,  models,  illustrations  through 
graphs    and    diagrams,    maps,    globes,    and    language. 

PICTURES 

Increasing  emphasis  of  pictures.  In  the  early  Ameri- 
can textbooks  of  geography,  pictures  were  almost  lacking. 
Shortly  before  the  Revolutionary  War,  Jedediah  Morse's 
American  geographies  appeared  in  two  volumes  without 
pictures.  Jacob  Willetts  explained  the  absence  of  numer- 
ous pictures  in  his  geography  (1826)  in  the  following 
words :  "  It  has  not  been  deemed  expedient  to  sprinkle 
the  book  with  pictures,  from  a  conviction  that  they  serve 
to  divert  the  attention  of  the  pupil  rather  than  to  inform 
his  mind  or  improve  his  taste." 

As  increasing  emphasis  has  been  placed  on  visual  educa- 
tion the  number  of  pictures  in  the  textbooks  has  increased. 
Many  pictures,  however,  have  been  selected  with  insuffi- 
cient care,  the  teacher  has  not  trained  the  pupils  in  the 
interpretation  of  pictures,  and  the  emphasis  placed  on  the 
reading  material  in  contrast  to  picture  study  has  brought 
about  a  general  neglect  of  pictures  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  their  value  theoretically  is  recognized.  It  is  gratify- 
ing to  note  that  the  recent  textbooks  contain  numerous 
pictures  each  of  which  has  been  selected  with  a  definite 
purpose  in  mind,  that  meaningful  statements  directly  re- 
lating to  the  pictures  are  made,  and  that  in  some  instances 
questions  intended  to  stimulate  the  pupil  to  interpret  the 


REPRESENTATIVE  GEOGRAPHY  in 

picture  are  included.  With  the  definite  recognition  of 
pictures  as  an  essential  part  of  the  textbook  organiza- 
tion, picture  study  undoubtedly  will  be  more  generally 
practiced. 

Visualizing  scenes  through  pictures.  Only  a  small  part 
of  geography  can  be  studied  through  direct  observation. 
The  child's  knowledge  of  world  geography,  necessarily, 
is  secured  primarily  through  the  use  of  symbols.  The 
picture,  which  is  the  least  arbitrary  of  symbols,  closely 
reproduces  scenes  beyond  the  child's  vision  in  such  a  way 
that  the  child  can  economically  and  accurately  secure  the 
appropriate  mental  images. 

When  a  picture  of  the  Niagara  Falls  is  presented,  this  great 
scenic  feature  immediately  assumes  an  element  of  reality. 
Now,  by  virtue  of  the  interest  aroused  through  what  the  vision 
reports,  the  great  sheet  of  water  is  seen  to  fall.  Its  thunder 
as  it  strikes  the  rocks  one  hundred  and  sixty  feet  below  is 
heard.  The  descent  to  the  Cave  of  the  Winds  can  actually  be 
made,  and,  through  skillful  teaching,  the  children  will  almost 
gasp  for  breath  as  they  are  drenched  by  the  falling  spray. 
Now,  in  some  measure  at  least,  the  pupils  can  make  the  con- 
nection between  this  falling  water  and  the  power  that  propels 
the  street  cars  in  Buffalo  and  illuminates  the  streets  and  build- 
ings of  the  city.1 

Comparison  of  photograph  with  the  original.  A  school 
camera,  used  during  field  trips,  may  be  helpful  in  train- 
ing pupils  correctly  to  observe  and  interpret  pictures. 
The  pupils  will  observe  carefully  the  scene  photographed, 
and  when  the  print  is  made  they  will  attempt  to  explain 

1  James  F.  Chamberlain,  "The  Use  of  Pictures  in  Geography  Teaching," 
Journal  of  Education  (May  7,  1914I,  Vol.  LXXIX,  p.  523. 


H2  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

appropriate  parts  of  the  trip  in  relation  to  the  picture. 
During  a  field  trip  an  area  may  also  be  discussed  in  con- 
nection with  photographs  previously  taken.  The  pupil, 
through  such  analysis,  will  come  to  appreciate  the  value 
of  pictures  in  representing,  and  he  will  learn  to  look  for 
the  important  things.  Pupils  who  have  learned  to  observe 
nature  and  man's  adjustments  to  nature  will  desire  to  use 
their  cameras  not  only  in  taking  pictures  of  their  friends 
but  also  in  recording  geographic  observations. 

In  comparing  the  picture  with  the  area  photographed, 
teacher  and  pupils  will  ask  themselves  many  questions. 
Does  the  picture  typically  represent  the  area  studied? 
Does  it  show  more  or  less  of  the  area  than  is  necessary 
for  recalling  the  field  discussion  ?  Does  the  picture  bring 
out  the  important  things  in  a  clear  way?  Are  there  any 
seemingly  irrelevant  things  represented  in  the  picture? 
Are  things  represented  in  the  picture  that  were  not 
observed  in  the  field  ?  Does  the  picture  help  in  imaging 
more  vividly  the  field  work?  Is  there  anything  in  the 
picture  to  indicate  the  relative  sizes  of  things  represented  ? 
The  camera  records  an  area  comparable  to  the  area  that 
comes  under  the  observation  of  the  individual  from  one 
viewpoint. 

Overcoming  weaknesses  in  picture  study.  A  geographic 
picture  should  have  some  distinguishing  characteristic. 
Panoramic  views  of  cities  are  frequently  almost  worthless 
because  of  the  confused  jumble  of  roofs  and  trees,  which 
might  represent  almost  any  large  city.  The  important 
part  of  the  picture  should  stand  out  in  prominent  relief. 
When  a  person  is  making  a  special  study  in  the  field  other 
objects  of  greater  prominence  may  scarcely  be  noticed, 


REPRESENTATIVE  GEOGRAPHY  113 

but  the  photograph  will  bring  these  less  important  objects 
into  sharp  relief.  Pictures  are  subject  to  misinterpreta- 
tions, and  particularly  is  this  true  of  the  ordinary  photo- 
graph, which  does  not  indicate  the  true  colors  of  the 
original.  Since  the  picture  is  static,  there  may  be  diffi- 
culty in  getting  the  child  to  construct  a  mental  picture  of 
the  situation  represented.  His  mental  imagery  may  stop 
with  the  picture.  The  picture  does  not  indicate  the 
change  that  is  in  progress,  but  merely  indicates  the  situa- 
tion at  a  particular  moment.  If  a  picture  of  a  silo  being 
filled  is  taken,  the  men,  horses,  wagons,  silage,  forks,  etc. 
are  shown  in  one  position  only.  The  picture  of  a  silo 
being  filled  should  be  used  as  an  organizing  center  for  an 
appreciation  of  these  changes.  A  picture  does  not  give  a 
pupil  a  real  appreciation  of  a  situation  unless  he  has  had 
similar  experiences.  A  pupil  may  note  a  diver  preparing 
to  dive  for  sponges,  but  unless  he  has  had  similar  experi- 
ence he  will  not  secure  a  real  appreciation  of  the 
situation.  An  analysis  of  a  picture  of  a  hay-pitcher  may 
indicate  that  there  is  a  stack  of  hay,  a  man  with  a  pitch- 
fork, a  partially  loaded  hay-frame  to  which  two  horses 
are  hitched,  while  a  jug  of  water  is  placed  in  the  shade. 
The  pupil  may  easily  get  the  "know"  of  the  situation, 
but  it  is  desirable  that  he  also  shall  get  the  "feel"  of  the 
situation.  He  will  need  to  know  about  the  work  of 
the  water-boy,  the  heat  of  the  sun's  rays,  the  thirst  of  the 
pitcher  for  cool  water,  the  fatigue  involved  in  lifting 
the  hay,  the  diversion  offered  by  snakes,  rabbits,  and  field 
mice,  the  pleasant  thoughts  aroused  over  the  excellent 
meals  that  are  served.  An  appropriate  feeling  concern- 
ing the  scene  represented,  in  relation  to  changes  and  in 


H4      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

relation  to  the  situation  itself,  can  best  be  secured,  in 
the  absence  of  actual  similar  experiences,  through  the 
use  of  clear,  vivid,  descriptive,  and  interpretative  state- 
ments, which  will  stimulate  the  imagination  of  the  child 
to  picture  the  scene  in  its  natural  setting. 

Value  of  pictures.  Picture  study  is  invaluable  in  geog- 
raphy teaching.  A  picture,  if  wisely  selected,  ( i )  enables 
a  pupil  to  take  in  at  a  glance  a  complex  relationship  eco- 
nomically and  accurately,  (2)  recalls  a  concrete,  specific 
situation,  (3)  gives,  through  its  reproduction  of  the  orig- 
inal, an  appearance  of  reality,  (4)  is  easily  understood, 
and  (5)  arouses  questions  which  will  lead  the  pupil  far 
beyond  the  immediate  purpose  of  the  picture. 

Collecting  and  using  pictures.  The  modern  textbooks 
have  many  excellent  pictures.  There  are  numerous 
supplementary  sources,  including  newspapers,  magazines, 
post  cards,  and  advertising  materials.  The  National  Geo- 
graphic Magazine,  Asia,  the  Pan-American  Union,  and 
the  rotogravure  section  of  the  Sunday  newspapers  are 
valuable  sources.  Every  school  should  have  a  collection 
of  pictures  to  illustrate  the  various  topics  of  geography. 
This  is  particularly  true  of  the  lower  grades,  where  the 
child  is  building  up  his  initial  geographic  concepts.  Pupils 
should  be  encouraged  to  make  individual  collections 
and  to  organize  these  collections  under  appropriate 
headings. 

The  supplementary  pictures  of  the  school  may  be 
classified  and  filed  in  envelopes  with  the  general  topic  and 
the  particular  pictures  indicated  on  the  backs  of  the 
envelopes.  The  pictures,  when  needed,  may  be  withdrawn 
from  the  files  and  clasped  to  cardboards.    If  it  seems 


REPRESENTATIVE  GEOGRAPHY  115 

preferable,  each  picture  may  be  mounted  on  a  cardboard, 
and  the  mounted  pictures  may  be  carefully  classified  and 
filed  away. 

The  pictures  may  be  placed  on  a  table  in  any  order,  and 
the  pupils  may  be  asked  to  arrange  them  in  logical  order 
so  as  to  show  causes  and  effects  or  successive  changes  in 
sequence.  Pictures  dealing  with  a  topic  under  discussion 
may  be  mixed  with  irrelevant  pictures,  and  pupils  may 
be  asked  to  select  the  pertinent  pictures.  The  individual 
contributions  may  be  compared  with  the  school  collection 
to  determine  what  additional  contributions  have  been 
made.  The  teacher  may  depend  on  the  individual  con- 
tributions and  use  only  as  much  of  the  school  collection 
as  is  necessary  to  illustrate  the  various  phases  of  the 
discussion.  The  pupils  may  indicate  the  phases  of  the 
discussion  that  should  be  illustrated,  and  they  may 
attempt  to  find  appropriate  illustrations.  Pupils  may 
study  questions  bearing  on  a  set  of  pictures,  the  discus- 
sion following  during  the  class  period.  Pupils  may  be 
asked  to  make  a  list  of  appropriate  questions  dealing  with 
each  picture.  The  ability  of  students  to  interpret  pictures 
and  to  use  them  as  organizing  centers  may  be  tested 
(1)  by  presenting  them  with  a  picture  and  appropriate 
questions,  (2)  by  distributing  pictures,  each  with  a  num- 
ber, the  pupils  to  write  opposite  the  same  numbers  on 
a  sheet  the  important  thing  represented,  (3)  by  giving 
pupils  the  names  of  the  pictures  and  asking  them  to  place 
beside  each  the  appropriate  number  as  indicated  on  the 
picture.  In  journey-geography  work  pupils  can  "think 
through"  the  details  of  the  trip  more  successfully  if  they 
have  pictures  illustrating  the  appealing  scenes  along  the 


ii6  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

route.  The  pupil  may  describe  the  journey  in  relation  to 
the  pictures.  The  details  may  vary,  but  the  teacher  will 
attempt  to  use  the  pictures  in  such  a  way  that  she  secures 
a  maximum  of  worth-while  mental  activity  from  each 
member  of  the  class. 

The  suggestion  of  pictures.  A  picture  is  of  value  be- 
cause of  what  it  actually  teaches  and  because  of  what  it 
suggests.  Some  questions  can  be  definitely  answered  from 
a  study  of  a  picture ;  some  questions  can  be  answered 
inferentially ;  while  other  questions  may  be  suggested  by 
the  picture  study,  but  other  materials  may  be  required  for 
satisfactory  answers.  In  the  verification  of  inferences 
other  sources  may  be  consulted.  If  the  pupil,  for  example, 
is  looking  at  a  picture  of  a  truck  garden,  he  may  be  able 
to  identify  certainly  the  sprinkling  system,  he  may  infer 
that  the  growing  vegetation  consists  of  radishes,  lettuce, 
and  onions,  but  he  may  find  it  necessary  to  consult  the 
descriptive  material  to  verify  this  inference.  He  may 
want  to  know  the  location  of  the  gardener's  market,  and 
it  may  be  necessary  for  him  to  consult  the  context  and  to 
locate  the  city  on  a  map.  With  the  picture  of  a  part  of 
a  truck  garden  as  a  point  of  departure  he  may  answer 
questions  directly  related  to  the  picture,  and  widening 
his  viewpoint  he  may  use  the  picture  as  an  organizing 
center  for  a  large  body  of  related  knowledge.  It  is  bet- 
ter to  make  a  careful  study  of  a  few  pictures  than  to 
dazzle  the  pupil  with  a  large  number  of  pictures  which 
are  flashed  before  him  in  rapid  succession.  Pictures 
should  become  meaningful  centers  for  large  bodies  of 
knowledge,  and  exceeding  care  should  therefore  be 
exercised  in  their  selection. 


REPRESENTATIVE  GEOGRAPHY  117 

Classes  of  pictures  needed.  Among  pictures  that  it  may 
be  desirable  to  collect  for  geographic  use  may  be  men- 
tioned ( 1 )  those  showing  climatic  and  topographic  condi- 
tions, (2)  those  showing  plant  and  animal  distributions, 
(3)  those  showing  the  various  ways  in  which  man  has 
utilized  the  resources  of  the  earth  and  the  ways  in  which 
these  resources,  through  transportation  facilities,  have 
been  distributed,  and  (4)  those  pictures  which  present  the 
scenic  attractions  of  nature.  A  picture  collection  should 
be  frequently  revised  through  the  elimination  of  the  less 
desirable  pictures  and  the  addition  of  superior  ones. 

Picture  study  related  to  study  of  other  materials.  If 
the  interpretation  of  pictures  in  connection  with  observa- 
tional geography  has  been  emphasized,  the  child  has  a 
very  important  mastery  of  a  symbol  that  will  help  him  to 
image  conditions  far  away.  If  a  picture  cannot  be  cer- 
tainly interpreted  it  is  useless  to  spend  much  time  discuss- 
ing it,  but  good  pictures  of  scenes  far  away  should  be 
carefully  studied.  Pictures  should  be  used  to  reenforce 
other  means  of  teaching  geography ;  the  other  materials 
of  geography  may  be  used  in  helping  the  pupil  to  answer 
questions  raised,  but  not  satisfactorily  answered,  through 
the  picture. 

Stereoscopes.  The  stereoscope  increases  the  vividness 
of  the  picture  by  the  apparent  depth  given.  Excellent 
pictures  are  available  for  practically  every  geographic 
topic.  The  stereograph  has  all  the  advantages  that  have 
been  attributed  to  the  ordinary  picture,  and  in  addi- 
tion there  is  the  advantage  of  increased  vividness.  The 
picture  may  be  reenforced  by  descriptive  material  on 
the  back.    If  only  a  few  stereoscopes  are  available  the 


n8      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

stereographs  and  stereoscopes  may  be  placed  on  a  table, 
and  the  pupils  may  be  permitted  to  study  a  set  of  pictures 
as  a  part  of  their  assignment.  It  may  be  desirable  occa- 
sionally, when  a  stereograph  will  throw  light  on  a  discus- 
sion, to  pass  the  stereoscope  and  picture  from  one  student 
to  another,  the  class  discussion  in  the  meantime  being  con- 
tinued. If  enough  stereoscopes  are  available  each  child 
may  be  supplied  with  a  stereoscope  and  picture.  The 
pupils  will  study  their  pictures  for  a  given  time,  and  when 
the  teacher  says  "pass"  the  pupils  will  pass  their  pictures. 
If  there  are  twenty  pupils  in  the  class  and  one  minute  is 
allowed  for  each  picture,  every  pupil  will  have  the  oppor- 
tunity of  seeing  all  the  pictures  in  twenty  minutes.  If 
the  pupil  also  reads  the  explanation  on  the  back,  a  longer 
period  of  time  will  be  necessary.  After  the  pupils  have 
seen  all  the  pictures,  each  pupil  may  be  asked  to  make 
a  special  study  of  the  stereograph  that  he  happens  to 
have.  The  class  may  then  hold  an  appreciation  exercise. 
Each  pupil  may  describe  his  picture,  and  the  rest  of  the 
class  may  attempt  to  recall  the  picture.  Each  pupil  may 
be  assigned  a  picture,  and  an  oral  report  of  each  picture 
relating  to  a  central  topic  may  constitute  the  basis  for  the 
class  discussion.  Each  pupil,  standing  before  the  class 
with  stereoscope  and  picture  before  him,  may  describe 
what  he  sees,  and  the  other  pupils  later  may  have  an 
opportunity  to  look  at  the  pictures  described,  if  they 
desire.  The  stereoscope  is  of  particular  value  in  arousing 
an  interest  in  worth-while  topics. 

The  lantern.  The  lantern  offers  the  particular  advan- 
tage of  enabling  the  whole  class  readily  to  observe  the 
same  picture  at  the  same  time.    A  discussion  with  the 


REPRESENTATIVE  GEOGRAPHY  119 

picture  before  the  class  enables  each  pupil  to  make  the 
appropriate  associations.  In  connection  with  the  study 
of  a  topic  a  lantern-slide  lesson  may  be  desirable.  Occa- 
sionally the  teacher  may  give  an  illustrated  talk.  In 
harmony  with  the  idea  that  actual  participation  of  stu- 
dents will  involve  maximum  activity,  however,  it  is  fre- 
quently desirable  to  assign  a  slide  to  each  pupil.  The 
pupil  makes  a  special  study  of  his  slide.  The  slides  may 
be  thrown  on  the  screen  in  a  given  order,  but  if  the 
mastery  of  the  subject  under  discussion  is  not  affected,  it 
may  be  desirable  to  put  the  slides  in  the  lantern  in  any 
order,  with  a  challenge  to  the  pupil  to  recognize  his  slide 
when  it  is  shown.  If  a  slide  lesson  is  introductory  to  a 
study  of  a  topic,  the  teacher  may  need  to  supplement  the 
pictures  with  pertinent  descriptive  material.  The  pupils 
should  be  encouraged  to  describe  the  pictures  also.  If  a 
slide  lesson  succeeds  the  discussion  of  a  topic,  the  pupils 
should  be  able  to  interpret  the  slides  out  of  their  experi- 
ences. Unless  a  slide  makes  a  definite  contribution  to  the 
topic  it  should  be  omitted.  The  slide  lesson  tests  the 
ability  of  the  pupil  to  discuss  a  topic  in  a  clear,  vivid  way. 
The  motion  picture.  The  crowning  achievement  in  the 
reproduction  of  that  which  is  good  to  see  is  the  motion 
picture.  The  moving  picture  overcomes  the  primary  dis- 
advantage of  an  ordinary  picture.  It  not  only  reproduces 
the  original  but  also  gives  the  appearance  of  action.  The 
picture  through  the  changing  scenes  becomes  dynamic. 
The  changing  relationships  help  the  child  to  get  the 
"feel"  as  well  as  the  "know"  of  the  pictures.  The 
moving  picture  is  the  nearest  approach  to  a  first-hand 
observation.    Many   situations   which   would   involve   a 


120  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

long  time  for  direct  observation,  or  which  can  be  observed 
only  with  great  danger  or  difficulty,  can  be  observed  at 
a  nominal  expense  in  a  comfortable  environment. 

It  is  impossible  to  overrate  +he  power  and  influence  upon 
our  national  life  which  is  being  exercised  by  motion  pictures 
today.  They  are  a  part  of  the  life  of  the  people.  The  rich 
and  the  poor,  the  educated  and  the  illiterate,  of  all  ages  and 
all  classes,  no  matter  what  language  they  speak  or  understand, 
find  amusement  and  recreation  in  them.  The  motion  picture 
speaks  to  the  mind  in  a  universal  language.  A  picture  can  be 
absolutely  absorbed  merely  by  seeing  it.  It  is  probably  the 
easiest  way  to  receive  impressions  that  the  world  has  yet  dis- 
covered. Mr.  Oberhoetzer,  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of 
Censorship  of  Pennsylvania,  says :  "  One  can  read  and  get 
an  impression  if  he  is  industrious  enough  to  do  so,  but  when 
he  views  a  motion  picture  he  gets  an  impression  in  spite  of 
himself.  The  influence  of  a  motion  picture  is  obviously  much 
greater  than  the  influence  of  a  book.  It  is  more  graphic  and  is 
an  influence  which  fixes  the  mind  of  a  person  who  does  not  read 
or  who  cannot  read  and  he  absorbs  it  anyhow."1 

In  the  Detroit  schools2  a  recent  experiment  was  con- 
ducted to  test  the  value  of  the  picture  film.  The  film 
told  about  oranges.  The  children  were  able  to  talk  about 
fumigating  the  trees,  watering  the  trees,  packing  the 
oranges,  etc.  in  a  clear,  accurate  manner.  An  attempt  was 
made  to  teach  a  group  with  similar  ability  the  story  of 
oranges  through  oral  presentation.  The  twenty-four  pupils 
averaged    78   per   cent   for   the  seventeen   and   one-half 

'Estella  L.  Moulton,  "Our  School  Children  and  the  Movies,''  Visual 
Education   (June,  1020),  Vol.  I,  p.  24. 

2  J.  H.  Wilson,  "Visual  Education  in  Detroit  Schools,"  Visual  Educa- 
cation  (June,  1920),  Vol.  I,  pp.  9-10. 


REPRESENTATIVE  GEOGRAPHY  121 

minutes  involved  in  looking  at  the  film,  and  the  other 
group  of  twenty-four  children  averaged  only  70.8  per 
cent  in  an  oral  presentation  of  the  same  topic  lasting 
thirty  minutes.  The  time  saved  by  the  visual  method 
was  nearly  50  per  cent,  while  the  children  showed  an 
increased  score  of  7.2  per  cent. 

There  are  many  difficulties  involved  in  the  use  of  films 
for  educational  purposes.  The  film  companies  have  been 
catering  to  the  demands  of  the  people,  who,  to  the  number 
of  over  six  million  daily,  attend  moving-picture  theaters 
in  the  United  States.  The  school-teachers  have  been  very 
conservative  in  their  attitude  toward  the  picture  film  as 
an  educational  agency.  The  strong  appeal  of  the  moving 
picture  to  people  of  all  ages  and  the  vivid  mental  impres- 
sions thereby  secured  suggest  the  desirability  of  making 
a  special  study  of  the  wonderful  educational  possibilities 
of  the  motion  picture. 

MAPS  AND  GLOBES 

In  connection  with  the  observational  work  of  the  early 
grades  locational  or  place  geography  inevitably  receives 
emphasis.  Where  did  we  go  and  how  did  we  go  ?  Can  we 
draw  a  plan  of  our  schoolroom,  or  of  the  block  on  which 
the  school  is  located,  so  that  someone  else  can  look  at 
our  plan  and  understand  the  location  of  places  ?  Can  we 
convey  a  clearer  idea  of  where  we  went  by  indicating  on 
paper  the  direction  and  the  location  of  the  object  of  our 
field  trip?  At  first,  without  much  attention  to  accurate 
scale,  but  only  with  a  rough  sense  of  proportion,  crude 
maps  can  be  made,  by  means  of  which  the  child  can 


122  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

describe  his  trip  more  vividly.  If  the  child  wishes  to  illus- 
trate a  difference  in  elevation  of  two  adjoining  areas,  he 
can  resort  to  two  colors.  If  green  stands  for  the  lower 
part  and  brown  for  the  higher  part,  he  can  indicate  this 
in  the  legend,  and  then  another  person  can  lell  from  the 
map  which  is  higher  and  which  is  lower.  During  the 
period  that  observational  work  is  emphasized  the  map 
work  will  be  largely  local  and  will  be  developed  in  con- 
nection with  the  observational  work  on  the  basis  of  need. 
A  symbol  that,  unlike  the  picture,  has  no  necessary  rela- 
tion to  the  scene  will  come  to  be  so  associated  with  the 
thing  represented  that  the  child  can  readily  understand 
the  thing. 

Through  the  expression  of  ideas  in  relation  to  obser- 
vational geography  the  child  becomes  acquainted  with 
the  use  of  maps.  As  he  studies  the  world-whole  he  will 
have  occasion  to  use  maps  many,  many  times.  The 
maps  made  by  others,  depicting  conditions  removed  from 
his  locality,  will  be  intelligible  because  of  this  preliminary 
work. 

There  is  greater  danger  of  an  abuse  of  maps  than 
there  is  of  pictures.  The  pictures  can  readily  be  asso- 
ciated with  a  concrete  scene.  While  the  child  starts  with 
a  map  that  represents  a  small,  well-known  area,  he  soon 
passes  to  areas  not  well  known.  Since  the  symbols  are 
purely  arbitrary,  unless  extraordinary  care  is  taken  the 
child  will  come  to  think  of  the  map  as  the  thing  itself. 
This  tendency  could  probably  be  avoided  in  part  if  large- 
scale  maps  were  used  to  represent  local  areas  in  the  region 
under  discussion.  Many  false  impressions  concerning 
the  location  of  our  leading  cities  would  never  have  been 


REPRESENTATIVE  GEOGRAPHY  123 

formed  had  the  pupils,  when  first  introduced  to  these 
cities  by  means  of  a  map,  been  given  a  large-scale  map 
of  the  city.  The  tendency  to  stop  with  the  symbol  is  most 
pronounced  with  maps  that  represent  areas  that  are  much 
larger  than  those  to  which  the  child  in  his  experience  is 
accustomed.  Europe,  for  example,  does  not  become  a 
real  region,  populated  with  real  people  engaged  in  real 
activities,  but  Europe  is  in  the  room  hanging  on  the  wall. 
Many  a  child  has  wondered  if  the  Europe  across  the 
Atlantic  had  any  real  relation  to  the  map  of  Europe  in 
the  schoolroom,  and  many  a  child,  talking  glibly  as  if  he 
realized  the  relation,  in  reality  had  no  feeling  of  a  close 
relationship. 

Work  in  geography  which  stops  with  the  symbols  is  in 
large  part  a  failure.  Symbols  are  of  value  only  as  they 
will  enable  the  child  to  image  the  real  thing  more  vividly. 
One  of  the  crying  needs  is  that  teachers  shall  constantly 
check  the  pupils  so  as  to  avoid  the  u  horrible  practice  of 
not  reading  beyond  the  map."  Much  of  this  difficulty 
can  be  overcome  by  having  pupils  consider  the  location 
of  the  area  with  respect  to  themselves — the  distance, 
how  long  it  will  take  to  get  there,  how  one  may  go, 
materials  that  are  sent  there,  and  products  that  come 
from  the  region. 

Maps  are  valuable  because  (1)  they  bring  together  in 
an  intelligible  way  large  areas  that  could  not  otherwise 
be  grasped,  (2)  they  present  the  essentials  and  omit  the 
nonessentials,  and  (3),  while  the  symbols  may  be  arbi- 
trary, they  represent  a  definite  thing. 


124  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

DIAGRAMS  AND  CHARTS 

It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  make  use  of  diagrams  and 
charts.  The  child  has  observed  something  which  he  can 
illustrate  by  means  of  a  diagram.  To  aid  in  explaining 
he  constructs  the  diagram.  He  may  wish  to  illustrate  a 
cross  section  of  a  valley,  the  relation  of  divides  and  val- 
leys, the  gradient  of  a  stream,  the  formation  of  natural 
levees,  the  use  of  a  derrick  in  lifting  stone  out  of  a  quarry. 
In  each  case  he  simply,  and  perhaps  crudely,  seeks  to 
increase  the  vividness  of  his  description  or  explanation 
through  illustrations  or  diagrams.  He  may  wish  to  visu- 
alize the  varying  production  of  some  crop  from  year  to 
year.  Geographers  are  coming  more  and  more  to  use 
diagrams  to  aid  the  pupil  in  visualization.  The  teacher 
should  devote  more  time  in  helping  the  child  to  express 
his  thoughts  diagrammatically,  so  that  he  will  appreciate 
the  value  of  this  method  of  transmitting  thought. 

A  diagram  constructed  by  the  pupil  to  aid  in  explaining 
a  problem  to  the  class  may  be  defective,  but  the  pupil, 
while  speaking,  may  be  able  to  amplify  the  diagram  in 
such  a  way  that  the  defects  are  minimized.  The  questions 
of  the  class  may  be  helpful  in  pointing  out  weaknesses. 
Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  construct  diagrams  care- 
fully and  to  explain  them  fully. 

LANGUAGE 

In  observational  geography  an  excellent  opportunity  is 
offered  of  training  the  pupil  in  oral  and  written  expression. 
New  ideas  are  being  secured.  The  pupil  talks  about  what 
he  has  seen.    Perhaps  field  notes  are  taken.    On  its  return 


REPRESENTATIVE  GEOGRAPHY  125 

from  the  field  trip  the  class  engages  in  an  oral  discussion 
of  the  trip.  Probably  a  written  account  of  the  trip  or 
some  aspect  of  it  is  required.  Some  of  the  accounts  may 
be  typewritten,  and  students  may  read  several  accounts 
concerning  the  trip.  Accounts  in  books,  directly  related 
to  the  field  work,  may  be  found.  In  connection  with  the 
field  work  the  need  of  words  to  represent  ideas  is  keen. 
In  connection  with  the  observation,  involving  an  account 
of  industries  far  away,  in  which  museum  material  is  used, 
the  need  of  representative  material  becomes  acute. 

The  teacher,  in  language  adapted  to  the  children,  tells 
them  many  things  of  interest.  Written  articles  adapted 
to  the  state  of  development  of  the  children  are  placed  in 
their  hands.  There  is  a  gradual  shifting  in  emphasis  from 
observational  to  representative  material.  The  geography 
textbook  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  child  at  an  early 
age,  and  it  consequently  becomes  important  not  only  in 
conveying  ideas  but  also  in  helping  the  child  to  enlarge 
his  reading  vocabulary. 

Considerable  practice  should  be  given  the  pupils  in  the 
vivid  visualizing  of  ideas  that  have  been  conveyed  to 
them  through  language.  There  is  danger  that  both  the 
teacher  and  the  pupils  will  mistake  knowledge  of  words 
for  knowledge  of  ideas.  Pupils  may  memorize  words  in 
relation  and  recite  glibly.  This  danger  may  be  guarded 
against  by  having  pupils  attempt  to  reproduce  the  ideas 
in  different  words,  or  in  a  different  set  of  symbols,  or  by 
enriching  the  material  presented  on  the  printed  page. 
With  advancing  years  the  pupil  will,  to  an  increasing 
extent,  be  dependent  on  the  printed  page  for  geographic 
information. 


126  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Sources  of  representative  material.  The  principal 
sources  of  representative  material  are  textbooks ;  supple- 
mentary readers  ;  newspapers ;  magazines ;  government 
publications  of  the  United  States,  of  the  states,  and  of 
various  foreign  governments ;  publications  of  an  adver- 
tising nature,  as  railroad  folders,  reports  of  manufactur- 
ing companies,  and  reports  of  chambers  of  commerce; 
maps  and  globes ;  atlases ;  gazetteers  ;  encylopedias ;  dic- 
tionaries ;  stereoscopic  and  stereographic  material ;  and 
pictures.  These  materials  are  used  with  varying  emphasis 
in  the  several  grades. 

Textbooks.  In  the  textbooks  will  be  found  reading 
material,  maps  of  various  kinds,  diagrams,  pictures,  a 
pronouncing  vocabulary — practically  everything  it  is 
possible  to  show  in  a  book  in  the  way  of  representative 
material  that  will  assist  in  geography  teaching.  Neces- 
sarily, because  of  the  large  field  covered,  the  material  in 
most  instances  is  insufficiently  amplified  and  requires  the 
use  of  supplementary  materials.  The  textbook  is  valuable 
in  directing  the  teacher  and  pupil,  in  giving  pertinent  and 
authentic  material  in  well-organized  form,  but  it  is,  in  too 
many  instances,  a  skeletonized  presentation. 

Maps.  Wall,  library,  and  outline  maps  are  valuable 
supplements  of  the  textbook.  The  wall  map  offers  the  chil- 
dren an  opportunity  to  work  concertedly  and  presents  the 
material  from  a  somewhat  different  viewpoint.  The  out- 
line map  reduces  the  work  of  the  children  to  a  minimum, 
gives  them  correct  outlines  through  which  their  impres- 
sions of  form  are  secured,  and  permits  them  to  engage  in 
self-expression  by  filling  in  the  information  desired. 


REPRESENTATIVE  GEOGRAPHY  127 

Supplementary  reading.  Detailed  articles  from  supple- 
mentary readers,  magazines,  etc.  are  significant  in  enrich- 
ing and  making  meaningful  the  condensed  statements  of 
the  textbook.  They  may  be  used  in  arousing  interest  in 
the  textbook  material,  or,  as  questions  arise  in  connection 
with  the  study  of  the  textbook,  pupils  may  use  the  sup- 
plementary material  to  answer  their  questions.  Pupils 
should  be  encouraged  to  note  geographic  materials  and 
to  make  reports  concerning  them. 

Results.  The  teacher  has  the  responsibility  of  seeing  to 
it  that  each  pupil  shall  become  acquainted  with  the  vari- 
ous types  of  geographic  materials,  that  he  shall  under- 
stand how  to  use  them,  and  that  he  shall  have  a  desire  to 
use  them.  One  fundamental  aim  of  the  teacher  in  connec- 
tion with  geography  should  be  to  give  the  child  the  ability 
to  find  quickly  and  satisfactorily  any  item  of  geography 
concerning  which  he  may  wish  to  inform  himself  in 
after  life. 

In  connection  with  observational  geography  the  child, 
on  the  basis  of  need,  becomes  acquainted  with  the  various 
ways  of  conveying  ideas,  through  the  use  of  symbols,  to 
others.  Some  of  the  symbols  are  in  general  use  in  all 
subjects,  and  some,  as  maps,  are  particularly  pertinent  in 
geography  work.  The  child,  through  his  acquaintance 
with  symbols  as  a  means  of  self-expression,  is  prepared  to 
interpret  them.  Through  the  numerous  means  of  convey- 
ing ideas  the  pupil  makes  an  intensive  study  of  the  world 
as  a  whole  and  its  various  parts.  An  increasing  grasp 
of  subject  matter  is  accompanied  by  an  increasing  ability 
to  recognize  and  interpret  the  symbols  of  geography. 


128  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Suggestions  for  Further  Study : 

1.  What  is  the  relation  between  observational  and  symbolic 
geography  ? 

2.  Select  five  pictures  that  are  valuable  geographically  and  five 
that  are  almost  valueless  geographically.  Explain  your  basis  for 
selection. 

3.  Select  a  geographic  topic  and  suggest  a  series  of  pictures  that 
would  assist  materially  in  the  study. 

4.  Attend  a  "movie  performance"  and  indicate  the  extent  to 
which  geography  was  desirably  depicted. 

5.  Read  a  daily  newspaper  with  respect  to  (a)  the  important 
place  names  mentioned  and  (b)  the  current  events  with  a  strong 
geographic  viewpoint. 

6.  What  are  the  essential  characteristics  of  a  desirable  geography 
textbook  ? 

Selected  References : 

Expression  Work: 
Dodge,  R.  E.,  and  Kirchwey,  C.  B.    The  Teaching  of  Geography, 

chap,  viii,  pp.  1 10-120. 

Hausmax,  L.  A.  "Simple  and  Rapid  Method  for  Making  Relief 
Models  from  Contour  Maps,"  Journal  of  Geography  (1917), 
Vol.  XVI,   pp.  97-100. 

LoiiECK,  A.  K.  "  Block  Diagrams,"  Journal  of  Geography  (1920), 
Vol.   XIX,  pp.   24-33. 

Meaks,  L.  W.  "Theme  Writing  in  Geography,"  Journal  of  Geog- 
raphy, Vol.  X.  pp.  1  30-1  3  1. 

Vax  Ci.ef.f,  E.  "  Language  of  Geography,"  Journal  of  Geography, 
Vol.  XI,  pp.  235-238. 

Globes : 

Johnson,  Wii.i.is  E.    Mathematical  Geography,  pp.  24-190. 

Wiswkll,  L.  ().    Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools,  p.  64. 

Maps  : 

Au,i;\.  L.  R.  "Map  Drawing,"  Journal  of  Geography,  Vol.  IV, 
PP-   33°- 336- 


REPRESENTATIVE  GEOGRAPHY  129 

Andrews,  A.  A.    "  Maps  in  the  Teaching  of  Geography,"  Journal 

of  Geography,  Vol.  I,  pp.  97-102. 
Brown,  R.  M.    "  Map  Reading,  South  America,"  Journal  of  Geog- 
raphy, Vol.  IV,  pp.  273-288. 
Dodge,   R.  E.,  and   Kirchwey,   C.  B.    Teaching  of  Geography, 

chap,  x,  pp.  126-135. 
Gulliver,  F.   P.    "  Orientation  of  Maps,"  Journal  of  Geography, 

Vol.  VII,  pp.  55-58. 
Holtz,  F.  L.     Principles    and    Methods   of   Teaching   Geography, 

chap,  xiv,  pp.  162-174;  chap,  xv,  pp.  175-204. 
Kelton,  M.  E.    "  Experiment  in  Fourth-Grade  Geography,"  fotir- 

na I  of  Geography,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  245-251. 
Redway,  Jacques.   New  Basis  of  Geography,  chap,  ix,  pp.  1 56-1 72. 
Sutherland,  William.    The  Teaching  of  Geography,  chap,  xx, 

pp.  235-261. 

Pictures : 

Averill,  L.  A.    "  Educational  Possibilities  of  the  Motion  Picture," 

Educational  Review,  Vol.  L,  pp.  392-398. 
Chamberlain,  J.  F.    "  Use  of  Pictures  in  Geography  Teaching," 

Journal  of  Education  (1914),  Vol.  LXXIX,  pp.  523-524. 
Gardner,    L.   M.    "  Picture   Study,"  Journal  of  Geography,  Vol. 

XIII,   pp.   85-89. 
Hine,  L.  W.    "  The  School  Camera,"  Elenientary  School  Teacher, 

Vol.  VI,  pp.  343-347- 
Holtz,   F.  L.    Principles  and   Methods   of   Teaching    Geography, 

chap,  vii,   pp.  60-71,   83-95. 
Sutherland,  William.   The  Teaching  of  Geography,  pp.  193-202. 

Textbooks : 

Calkins,  R.  D.   "  The  Text,  the  Course  of  Study,  and  the  Teacher," 

Jour/ml  of  Geography,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  164- 167. 
Dodge,   R.   E.,  and   Kirchwey,   C.   B.    Teaching  of  Geography, 

chap,   ix,   pp.    120-126. 
Hall-Quest,  Alfred.    The  Textbook  (191 8),  p.  247. 
Holtz,  F.  L.     Principles  and    Methods    of    Teaching    Geography, 

chap,  iv,  pp.  20-29;  chap,  xxiv,  pp.  321-334. 


130  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Kenyon,  W.  J.    "  Consideration  of  Geography  Texts,"  Elementary 

School  Teacher,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  97-107. 
Sutherland,  William.    The  Teaching  of  Geography,  chap,  xv, 

pp.  172-183. 

Supplementary  reading : 

Dodge,  R.  E.,  and  Kirchwey,  C.  B.  Teaching  of  Geography,  chap. 
xiv,  pp.  181  —  193. 

Grose,  H.  D.  "Making  Library  Work,  Field  Work,  and  Labora- 
tory Work  Mutually  Supplemental,"  Journal  of  Geography,  Vol. 
XIV,  pp.  253-256. 

Holtz,  F.  L.  Principles  and  Methods  of  Teaching  Geography, 
chap,  xiii,  pp.  1 56-181. 

Sutherland,  William.  The  Teaching  of  Geography,  chap,  xvi, 
pp.  183-193. 


PART  FOUR.    THE  CLASS 


CHAPTER  IX 
CLASS  ORGANIZATION 

Threefold  conception  of  class  organization.  For  working 
purposes  the  class  may  be  organized  (i)  as  a  unit,  (2)  in 
subgroups  (group  work),  or  (3)  on  an  individual  basis. 
The  three  organizations  indicated  are  not  sharply  sepa- 
rated. A  class  of  thirty  may  be  given  the  same  assignment 
and  divided  into  groups,  each  group  being  held  respon- 
sible for  a  certain  part  of  the  assignment,  or  each  member 
of  the  class  may  be  assigned  a  different  topic. 

The  class  as  a  unit.  The  whole  class  may  work  on 
the  problem  "Account  for  the  dominating  significance  of 
manufacturing  in  the  New  England  States."  During  the 
study  period  each  member  bends  his  efforts  toward  at- 
tempting to  solve  the  problem.  Each  individual  is  respon- 
sible for  the  interpretation  of  the  problem.  There  is  no 
phase  of  the  problem  that  he  can  conscientiously  neglect. 
His  ability  to  meet  the  situation  on  his  own  initiative  is 
challenged.  His  success  depends  in  part  upon  his  ability 
to  interpret  maps  and  books. 

During  the  recitation  period  the  class  discusses  the 
material  that  has  been  secured.  The  statements  of  each 
member  are  received  and  evaluated  by  the  other  members. 
Every  student  has  studied  each  phase  of  the  problem  and 
is  prepared  either  to  discuss  or  to  criticize  the  statements 
of  other  students.    The  whole  discussion  is  appreciatively 


134  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

followed  to  the  extent  that  the  student  has  mastered  the 
assignment.  The  recitation  period  is  a  clearing  house  for 
the  exchange  and  modification  of  ideas.  This  type  of  or- 
ganization has  the  advantage  of  placing  on  each  pupil  a 
maximum  responsibility  of  meeting  the  whole  situation 
individually.  Depending  on  himself,  he  is  stimulated  to 
"see  a  problem  through."  The  desirability  of  checking 
one's  conclusions  with  those  of  other  people  is  noted 
through  the  class  discussions.  Individualism,  checked  by 
social  evaluation,  is  emphasized. 

Group  work.  In  an  attempt  to  secure  a  greater  sociali- 
zation of  the  course  of  study,  teachers  have  placed  increas- 
ing emphasis  on  group  work.  The  class  may  be  divided 
into  any  desired  number  of  subgroups.  The  problem 
"  Account  for  the  dominating  significance  of  manufactur- 
ing in  the  New  England  States"  may  be  subdivided  into  a 
sufficient  number  of  minor  problems  so  that  each  group 
will  have  a  subproblem.  The  teacher  may  indicate  the  sub- 
topics, or  preferably  the  class  as  a  whole  may  suggest  the 
topics  that  should  be  studied  in  an  attempt  to  solve  the 
problem. 

The  class,  with  the  help  of  the  teacher,  should  plan  the 
details  of  the  work.  The  class  may  be  divided  into  a 
variable  number  of  groups  according  to  the  number  of 
minor  problems.  It  is  not  necessary  that  all  the  groups 
shall  contain  the  same  number  of  pupils.  If  the  minor 
problems  vary  in  importance  or  in  available  material,  the 
number  in  each  group  may  vary  accordingly.  Inasmuch 
as  the  pupils  are  grappling  with  a  new  situation,  the  sug- 
gestions of  the  teacher  will  be  helpful  in  securing  a  reason- 
ably satisfactory  distribution  of  topics  and  of  groups. 


CLASS  ORGANIZATION  135 

Ordinarily  it  seems  better  to  select  a  leader  for  each 
group.  The  leader  may  be  selected  by  the  class,  occasion- 
ally by  the  teacher,  or  each  subgroup  may  select  its  own 
leader.  If  the  leaders  are  selected,  each  leader  may  select 
in  turn  students  for  his  group.  This  method,  however, 
emphasizes  the  group  organization  apart  from  any  special 
interest  of  the  pupil  in  a  minor  problem.  The  pupil  must 
adjust  himself  to  the  problem  which  his  group  happens 
to  have.  The  volunteer  system  may  be  employed,  and 
each  student  may  select  the  minor  problem  that  he  pre- 
fers to  study.  This  method  emphasizes  individual  adjust- 
ment on  the  basis  of  strong  interest  already  existing  in  the 
subject  matter,  and  an  appropriate  distribution  of  pupils 
in  relation  to  the  various  topics  may  not  be  secured. 

In  many  instances  it  may  seem  wise  to  steer  a  medium 
course.  The  topics,  with  the  suggested  number  of  pupils 
needed,  may  be  listed  on  the  board.  Pupils  may  be  asked 
to  volunteer  for  each  topic,  and  then  those  topics  for 
which  there  is  least  demand  may  first  be  assigned.  If 
only  five  pupils  are  wanted  for  the  first  topic,  and  ten 
volunteer,  the  teacher  may  temporarily  pass  by  this  topic 
and  all  similarly  popular  topics.  If  five  are  wanted  for  a 
topic,  and  only  three  respond,  the  teacher  may  call  for 
more  volunteers.  Frequently  enough  pupils,  stimulated 
by  a  desire  to  cooperate  and  pleased  with  the  thought  that 
they  are  yielding  their  preferences  for  the  general  welfare 
of  the  group,  or  because  their  original  preferences  were 
not  very  strong,  will  volunteer.  If  the  less  popular  topics 
are  disposed  of  first,  the  more  popular  topics  are  auto- 
matically disposed  of.  If  the  cooperative  class  spirit  is 
inadequately   developed,   it  may   be   necessary   for  the 


[36  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

teacher  arbitrarily  to  make  selections.  Pupils  should 
have  the  opportunity  both  to  follow  up  their  preferences 
and  to  adjust  themselves  to  problems  in  which  they  have 
no  particular  interest. 

Care  should  be  taken  not  to  build  up  fixed  groups. 
Pupils,  prompted  by  friendship,  may  clique  together  not 
because  of  a  special  interest  in  the  same  topic  but  because 
they  like  to  work  together.  Such  combinations,  once 
effected,  may  tend  to  become  self-perpetuating.  Pupils 
rearranged  in  different  groups  have  a  broader  experience 
in  learning  how  to  work  with  other  people. 

If  each  group  selects  its  own  leader,  there  will  be  a 
tendency  to  select  the  one  who  has  shown  marked  quali- 
ties of  leadership.  Unguided,  the  subgroups  may  select 
the  same  leaders  repeatedly.  According  to  our  democratic 
conception  of  education  each  pupil  should  have  the  oppor- 
tunity to  work  under  a  leader  of  a  group  and  also  the 
opportunity  of  exercising  the  functions  of  leadership. 
Pupils  tend  to  clique  together,  to  select  the  same  topic,  and 
to  appoint  the  same  captain  repeatedly  because  they  have 
not  learned  to  analyze  such  situations.  The  real  teacher 
will  not  arbitrarily  break  up  these  tendencies.  She  will 
analyze  these  situations  with  the  children,  and  she  will 
attempt  to  get  their  intelligent  cooperation  in  realizing 
the  maximum  possibilities  of  group  work. 

Report  of  subgroup  to  the  class  as  a  ivlwlc.  The 
individuals  of  the  group  must  cooperate ;  the  groups  also 
must  cooperate  in  order  that  the  larger  problems  may  be 
solved.  Theoretically  the  major  and  minor  problems 
should  make  such  an  appeal  that  each  pupil  in  preparing 
the  work,  in  explaining  to  the  group,  and  in  listening  to 


CLASS  ORGANIZATION  137 

the  explanations  of  others  is  enthusiastically  interested. 
Practically,  because  of  failure  to  realize  ideal  conditions, 
various  devices  may  be  helpful.  The  group  leading  the 
discussion,  stimulated  by  the  responsibility  of  carrying 
forward  the  program  and  the  desire  to  win  the  approba- 
tion of  the  class,  in  addition  to  the  stimulation  secured 
from  the  problem  itself,  ordinarily  is  mentally  very  active. 

Since  the  pupils  are  immature,  they  may  need  assist- 
ance in  discovering  the  attributes  of  a  well-presented 
report.  The  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  criticize  con- 
structively their  own  work  and  the  work  of  other  members 
of  the  class.  They  should  analyze  the  responsibilities  of 
the  "giver"  and  the  "receiver."  The  group  reciting,  with 
an  absolute  mastery  of  its  subject  matter,  should  present 
its  materials  in  a  clear,  convincing,  enthusiastic  manner. 
New  words  should  be  written  on  the  board,  and  place 
names  should  be  located  on  the  map.  The  pupil,  anxious 
to  please,  may  attempt  to  memorize  the  pertinent  parts  of 
an  article.  His  mind  may  be  diverted  from  the  thought 
to  the  form.  He  may  copy  the  words  from  a  book  and 
read  these  "notes"  to  the  class  in  such  a  way  as  to  indi- 
cate that  he  is  not  thinking.  The  pupil  may  be  asked  to 
talk  without  his  notes,  or,  if  he  apparently  has  memorized 
a  form,  an  interruption  through  a  few  well-directed  ques- 
tions may  break  up  the  memory  chain.  The  teacher 
should  constantly  attempt  to  lead  the  pupils  from  the 
plane  of  mere  transmission  of  the  thoughts  of  another  to 
the  plane  of  giving  ideas  which  the  child  thoroughly 
understands. 

Rarely  will  it  be  possible  for  pupils  to  give  a  finished 
presentation.    They   are   not   masters   of   the   art.    The 


138  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

teacher,  with  her  knowledge  of  the  interests  and  experi- 
ences of  the  class,  with  her  broader  grasp  of  subject  mat- 
ter, should  be  able  to  select,  organize,  and  present  subject 
matter  in  a  more  appealing  way.  The  teacher's  talk  may 
make  a  stronger  appeal  because  of  the  care  with  which 
the  details  have  been  selected  and  may  be  more  profit- 
able to  the  listeners.  Pupils  should  be  trained,  however, 
not  only  to  receive  knowledge  but  to  present  their  views 
effectively.  However  conscientiously  the  group  may  at- 
tempt to  present  its  topic,  it  may  fall  short  of  an  ideal 
presentation  with  reference  to  the  rest  of  the  class. 

The  listeners.  Since  group  presentation  is  rarely  ideal, 
the  attention  of  the  rest  of  the  class  is  not  always  held, 
even  though  the  topic  itself  may  be  very  appealing.  In 
spite  of  a  well-selected  topic  and  an  excellent  presentation, 
certain  students,  unchecked,  may  yield  to  some  more 
appealing  interest.  Numerous  devices  may  be  used  to 
retain  class  attention.  Pupils  not  only  need  to  learn  the 
art  of  presenting,  they  need  to  learn  the  art  of  listening. 
As  a  matter  of  politeness  and  tolerance  of  other  view- 
points pupils  should  learn  to  control  themselves  irre- 
spective of  the  topic  that  is  presented. 

The  group  in  charge  has  a  responsibility  that  it  cannot 
shift  without  detection.  The  listeners,  unless  presented 
with  ideas  that  they  can  use  or  for  which  they  will  be 
held  responsible,  may  secure  little  benefit,  even  though 
outwardly  they  are  attentive.  The  presentation  may  be 
followed  by  a  quiz,  the  questions  being  asked  by  the 
group,  by  the  teacher,  or  by  various  members  of  the  class. 
The  group  presenting  the  material  may  be  questioned. 
The  class  may  be  asked  to  write  on  one  or  more  questions, 


CLASS  ORGANIZATION  139 

which  will  permit  individual  checking  of  results.  Pupils 
may  be  asked  to  engage  in  systematic  note-taking,  to  list 
appropriate  questions  as  the  discussion  proceeds,  and  to 
summarize  the  discussion.  The  class  may  occasionally  be 
asked  to  criticize  the  presentation  of  the  group,  and  this 
may  make  it  alert,  although  in  this  instance  the  emphasis 
is  shifted  from  subject  matter  to  the  means  of  presentation. 

Ideal  group  work.  The  discussion  thus  far  has  pro- 
ceeded with  the  assumption  that  the  work  is  imperfectly 
motivated  and  that  the  means  of  transmitting  ideas, 
because  of  immaturity,  is  faulty.  As  perfect  motivation 
is  more  nearly  attained  the  need  for  devices  correspond- 
ingly decreases.  The  teacher's  ambition  is  to  secure 
perfect  motivation  ;  to  the  extent  that  she  fails  she  must 
resort  to  devices  or  lose  control  of  the  situation. 

The  teacher  will  attempt  to  get  some  objective  before 
the  class  which  the  class  feels  is  decidedly  worth  while. 
She  will  analyze  with  them  the  materials  that  ought  to  be 
examined.  If  their  interpretation  will  involve  too  much 
work  for  each  individual,  the  need  for  group  work,  involv- 
ing a  subdivision  of  the  unit  of  work,  arises.  Each  group 
feels  its  responsibility  because  its  contribution  is  neces- 
sary in  reaching  the  goal.  The  c]ass  is  interested  in  the 
contribution  of  each  group  because  cooperative  endeavor 
will  enable  them  to  reach  the  goal  more  quickly  and  eco- 
nomically. Each  student  is  interested  in  ever)*  contribu- 
tion as  a  means  to  a  desired  end.  No  problem  of  discipline 
arises,  and  there  is  no  nee,:  of  securing  devices  to  hold  the 
attention  of  the  pupil,  for  his  interest  is  centered  on  the 
possible  value  of  the  material  in  helping  him  to  reach 
the  goal.    The  eagerness  of  the  pupils   to  give  and  to 


140  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

receive  more  than  counterbalances  the  effects  of  imperfect 
giving  and  receiving.  The  teacher  will  attempt  to  realize 
this  ideal  situation ;  in  proportion  as  she  fails  she  must 
resort  to  devices  and  arbitrary  control. 

Questioning.  The  pupil,  in  reporting,  may  succeed  in 
presenting  his  report  more  effectively  if  he  occasionally 
will  ask  questions  and  give  the  class  an  opportunity  to 
make  inferences.  A  subgroup  need  not  always  give  a 
formal  report.  It  may  stand  ready  to  answer  any  ques- 
tions of  the  class  dealing  with  its  topic.  The  questions 
challenge  the  ability  of  the  group  to  use  its  findings  in 
response  to  class  needs  and  tend  to  break  up  any  mere 
memory  organization  of  the  report. 

Advantages  of  group  work.  There  are  several  striking 
advantages  that  may  come  from  group  work,  (i)  A 
teacher  may  have  found  it  difficult  to  secure  responses 
from  certain  members  of  the  class.  If  such  a  person  be- 
comes a  member  of  a  small  group,  social  pressure  of  other 
members  of  the  group  will  be  brought  to  bear  on  him. 
The  pupils  are  quick  to  discover  and  shame  the  slacker 
into  action,  and  they  are  correspondingly  successful  in 
levying  on  the  abilities  of  the  timid  persons.  (2)  The 
student  who  has  been  attempting  to  monopolize  the  recita- 
tion learns  to  check  himself  and  finds  an  outlet  for  a  part 
of  his  energy  in  assisting  the  weak  members  of  his  group 
to  participate.  (3)  Training  in  leadership  is  given. 
(4)  Not  only  is  cooperation  in  a  group  secured  but  also 
the  cooperation  of  the  various  groups  because  of  the  com- 
mon objective.  (5)  Much  of  the  responsibility  is  shifted 
from  the  teacher  to  the  pupils,  where  it  belongs.  (6)  Ini- 
tiative is  readily  developed.    (7)  Economy  of  time  in  the 


CLASS  ORGANIZATION  141 

consideration  of  the  problem  is  effected  because  of  the 
division  of  the  work.  (8)  More  ground  can  be  covered  in 
a  given  time  because  of  the  team  work. 

Difficulties  of  group  work.  There  are  certain  difficul- 
ties that  may  arise  in  connection  with  group  work. 
Teachers  may  become  enthusiastic  over  group  work 
because  of  the  ease  with  which  they  can  shift  the  respon- 
sibility for  the  work  to  the  pupils.  The  teacher,  lulled 
into  minimum  activity,  may  permit  the  assignment  to 
degenerate  into  purposeless,  topical  assignments  to  each 
group,  each  group  helping  the  class  to  beat  time  through 
the  recitation  period.  If  the  class  period  is  divided  into 
the  needed  parts  so  that  each  group  can  recite,  each  group 
may  learn  from  experience  about  how  much  time  it  will  be 
given,  and  it  may  prepare  merely  for  the  length  of  time 
required  to  "take  up"  its  part  of  the  time.  The  pupils 
may  not  develop  the  independent  spirit  that  comes  from 
individual  work.  The  leaders  may  tend  to  do  most  of  the 
work.  The  teacher  will  need  to  guard  against  ( 1 )  undue 
exercise  of  leadership  by  a  few,  (2)  the  monopoly  of 
work  by  a  few,  (3)  the  mere  transmission  of  ideas  by 
memorizing  articles,  (4)  careless,  inaccurate,  or  irrelevant 
statements,  (5)  poor  presentation,  (6)  willful  inattention, 
and  (  7 )  purposeless  work. 

Individual  work.  Individual  work  may  consist  of  in- 
dividual assignments  of  minor  problems,  each  bearing  on 
a  major  problem ;  individual  assignment  of  articles,  each 
bearing  on  the  same  topic ;  an  individual  assignment  to 
secure  further  light  on  a  topic  under  discussion  or  to  be  dis- 
cussed ;  or  an  individual  assignment  to  satisfy  some  prob- 
lem in  which  an  individual  expresses  particular  interest. 


142  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Perhaps  the  most  common  individual  assignment  in- 
volves a  preparation  of  a  report  for  the  class.  Following 
a  discussion  of  the  lumber  industry,  the  teacher  may  as- 
sign each  pupil  a  different  slide  or  picture  to  be  studied 
and  later  interpreted  before  the  class.  In  a  discussion  of 
the  resources  along  the  Trans-Siberian  railroad  the  whole 
class  may  express  an  interest  in  the  difficulties  involved 
in  its  construction,  and  some  individual  may  be  asked  to 
read  a  given  article  or  to  attempt  to  find  the  desired 
information.  He  will  later  make  a  detailed  report  to  the 
class.  In  a  study  of  China  an  individual,  but  not  the 
class  as  a  whole,  may  express  a  desire  to  learn  more  about 
the  significance  of  the  Great  Wall  in  Chinese  history. 
The  individual  concerned  may  make  a  detailed  study,  but, 
because  the  class  is  not  generally  interested,  a  report,  if 
made  to  the  class,  will  be  very  brief.  The  individual 
report  may  be  made  with  the  aim  of  acquainting  students 
with  certain  books  or  magazines.  Each  pupil  may  be 
assigned  a  bound  volume  of  the  National  Geographic 
Magazine,  the  Geographic  Review,  the  Journal  of  Geog- 
raphy, Asia,  or  the  Pan-American  Union,  or  the  current 
numbers  of  other  magazines,  and  he  may  be  asked  to 
select  an  article  and  prepare  it  in  the  form  of  a  written 
report  for  presentation  to  the  class.  It  is  not  the  busi- 
ness of  the  school  to  prescribe  maximum  essentials, 
but  minimum  essentials.  Individual  reports  permit  the 
teacher  to  stimulate  each  pupil  to  accomplish  as  much 
more  than  the  minimum  essentials  as  seems  desirable. 

An  individual  assignment  is  of  particular  value  in 
developing  and  testing  the  ability  of  the  individual  to 
work  alone.    In  the  reading  and  reporting  of  an  article 


CLASS  ORGANIZATION  143 

some  pupils  will  insist  on  reporting  from  notes  or  from 
memory  almost  the  exact  statements  of  the  author.  In- 
experienced pupils  will  not  readily  discriminate  between 
important  and  incidental  statements.  There  will  be  a 
tendency  for  a  pupil  to  pass  on  to  a  class  statements  that 
he  himself  does  not  understand.  Pupils  should  be  en- 
couraged not  to  be  mere  transmitters  of  knowledge  but 
to  raise  the  special  report  to  a  problem  level.  They  should 
select,  evaluate,  and  reorganize  the  material.  The  final 
report  should  indicate  a  thorough  mastery  of  the  article. 
In  the  foregoing  discussion  an  attempt  has  been  made 
to  indicate  the  value  of  class,  group,  and  individual  work. 
Group  work  is  being  emphasized  in  many  schools,  and  in 
her  enthusiasm  the  teacher  may  feel  that  all  geography 
work  should  be  organized  on  this  basis.  The  thoughtful 
teacher,  however,  will  make  frequent  use  of  all  three 
class  organizations  suggested.  It  should  be  noted  that  the 
three  organizations  shade  into  each  other.  The  individual 
report  has  many  of  the  characteristics  of  the  group 
reports,  and  the  class  as  a  whole  is  one  large  group.  In 
any  case  the  pupils  do  not  exist  for  the  purpose  of 
exemplifying  these  class  organizations,  but  the  organiza- 
tions are  analyzed  and  skillfully  utilized  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  pupils. 

Suggestions  for  Further  Study : 

1.  In  the  last  analysis  should  group  and  class  work  be  measured 
through  the  accomplishment  of  the  class  as  a  whole  or  through  the 
accomplishment  of  each  individual  ? 

2.  Which  of  the  three  kinds  of  organization  suggested  should 
be  emphasized  the  most  ? 


144  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

3.  Does  it,  after  all,  make  much  difference  how  the  class  is 
organized  if  the  pupils  are  mastering  the  content  of  geography,  or 
are  there  special  habits,  attitudes,  and  ideals  that  the  pupils  should 
secure  through  the  study  of  geography  ? 

4.  What  are  the  functions  of  the  teacher  when  the  class  is  doing 
group  work  ?    May  she  become  absolutely  unnecessary  ? 

Selected  References : 

Bigelow,  Luna  E.  "  The  Individual  Assignment  in  Geography," 
Elementary  School  Teacher,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  250-256. 

Kilpatrick,  Van  E.  "  Emancipating  the  Individual  Pupil,*'  Educa- 
tion, Vol.  XXX,  pp.  375-386. 

MAYBERRY,  L.  W.  "  Individualizing  Problems  for  Pupils,"  Ele- 
ment ary  School  Teacher,  Vol.  XVIII.  pp.    133- 137. 

Morris,  Wilsox  C.  "  The  Individual  and  our  Educational  Sys- 
tem," School  and  Society  (191  5).  Vol.  II,  pp.   554-557- 

Scott,  Colin  A.  Self-Organized  Groups,  Kindergarten  and  First 
Grade,  Vol.  II,  pp.  316-320. 

Shaw,  C.  B.  "  Some  Experiments  in  Group  Work,"  Elementary 
School  Teacher,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  329-334. 


CHAPTER   X 
SOCIALIZATION  AND    FREE  ACTIVITY 

Socializing  the  school.  The  school  has  been  established 
primarily  with  the  aim  of  preparing  for  social  efficiency. 
The  school  has  always  been  a  relatively  socialized  institu- 
tion, but  society  is  dynamic,  and  it  has  been  difficult  to 
adjust  the  school  curriculum  in  accordance  with  the 
changes  so  as  to  keep  the  content  thoroughly  socialized. 
The  increased  complexity  of  social  organization  has  added 
to  the  difficulties  of  determining  the  fundamentals  of  a 
socialized  school.  The  influence  of  the  Greek  ideal  of 
culture  apart  from  utility  has  still  further  retarded  a 
thorough  socialization  of  the  school  plant.  Since  the 
school  not  only  should  help  the  child  to  adjust  himself  to 
the  present  social  organization  but  also  should  give  him 
the  ability  to  readjust  himself  to  the  changing  conditions 
of  society,  it  is  desirable  that  a  broad  view  shall  be  taken 
in  the  socialization  of  content. 

Those  who  daily  come  in  contact  almost  exclusively  with 
children  can  hardly  be  expected  to  have  their  ring  of  social 
interest  widened  beyond  the  confines  of  the  school  playground 
or  the  second  back  alley.  .  .  .  Not  infrequently  teachers  so 
lose  touch  with  the  needs  of  the  social  order  that  this  in  its 
progress  washes  past  them  altogether,  leaving  them  stranded 
high  and  dry  like  fossils  on  the  deserted  shore  line  of  an  ancient 
sea.    As  for  taking  any  active  part  in  civic  and  political  affairs, 

MS 


146  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

some  teachers  meet  perfectly  a  recent  characterization  of  college 
students — "as  innocuous  as  a  flock  of  sheep."1 

Socialization  resolves  itself  into  two  parts —  ( i )  social- 
ization of  the  content  and  (2)  socialization  of  the  method. 
The  socialization  of  content  involves  the  selection  of  sub- 
ject matter  that  has  a  well-defined  relation  to  present- 
day  activities.  The  socialization  of  method  involves  the 
organization  of  subject  matter  in  relation  to  the  class  in 
such  a  way  that,  through  the  mastery  of  content,  the 
pupils  secure  positive  training  in  social  relations. 

Geography  as  a  socialized  study.  Geography,  dealing 
with  mams  relations  with  his  physical  environment,  is 
ideally  adapted  to  socialized  work.  The  pupil,  through 
the  study  of  geography,  sees  man  in  his  socialized  relations 
making  a  living  directly  or  indirectly  from  mother  earth. 
He  sees  people  cooperating  and  groups  of  people  cooper- 
ating. The  subject  itself,  therefore,  suggests  both  to 
teacher  and  to  pupil  the  value  of  socialized  work. 

Socializing  the  work  of  geography  classes.  If  socialized 
work  is  desirable,  as  indicated  through  the  study  of  geog- 
raphy, in  the  out-of-school  activities,  it  is  a  reasonable 
assumption  that  the  school,  an  institutional  organization 
of  society,  can  also  profit  through  socialized  work.  What 
are  some  of  the  characteristics  of  socialized  work  ? 

1.  Socialization  demands  that  the  pupils  shall  do  their 
proportionate  share  of  the  work  in  accordance  with 
ability.  The  teacher  may  be  regarded  as  a  pupil  who, 
presumably   as   to   methods   and  knowledge,   is  a   little 

1  D.  D.  Johnson,  "Socializing  Education,"  School  and  Society  (Decem- 
ber 18,  1915),  Vol.  II,  pp.  868-869. 


SOCIALIZATION  AND  FREE  ACTIVITY        147 

farther  along  than  the  rest  of  the  pupils.    She  is  a  member 
of  the  social  group  that  meets  with  specific  aims  in  view. 

2.  Socialization  demands  that  pupils  shall  enter  into 
the  discussion  in  a  democratic  manner.  No  pupil  will  be 
permitted  to  monopolize  the  recitation  period.  Pupils 
who  do  not  contribute  will  be  made  to  feel  that  they  are 
passive  members  of  the  group.  Their  own  self-respect 
will  demand  that  they  participate.  Pupils  inclined  to 
talk  too  much,  on  the  other  hand,  will  resolutely  give  way 
to  the  more  timid  members.  The  active  will  encourage 
the  passive;  the  passive  will  arouse  themselves  so  that 
they  will  have  a  voice  in  the  proceedings. 

3.  Socialization  demands  that  pupils  not  only  shall 
answer  questions  but  also  shall  ask  them.  In  the  formal 
recitation  work  it  has  been  the  custom  to  regard  the 
teacher  as  the  one  who  should  ask  questions  and  the 
pupils  as  the  ones  who  should  answer  them.  Pupils, 
through  their  own  questions,  can  more  nearly  meet  their 
real  needs  than  a  teacher,  who  is  unacquainted  with  the 
special  difficulties  that  the  child  has  encountered.  It 
requires  skill  to  ask  as  well  as  to  answer  questions.  The 
teacher,  in  common  with  the  other  pupils,  has  a  right  to 
ask  questions  and  also  has  an  opportunity  to  answer  ques- 
tions, but  her  assistance  in  either  case  is  given  only  so  far 
as  it  is  necessary  in  order  to  enable  the  children  to  utilize 
the  time  and  material  in  the  most  effective  fashion. 

4.  Socialization  suggests  that  pupils  may  originate 
problems  or  topics  for  discussion.  With  respect  to  any 
topic  thus  advanced,  the  class  may  consider  whether  the 
topic  is  pertinent  and  worth  while.  The  guidance  of  the 
teacher  may  be  necessary  in  assisting  the  pupils  to  form 


148  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

a  judgment.  Frequently,  if  teacher  and  pupils  are  living 
on  the  same  intellectual  level,  one  topic  leads  to  another 
in  such  a  way  that  pupils  can  make  the  proper  suggestions 
and  thus  adopt  topics  which  the  democratic  situation 
demands. 

5.  Socialization  suggests  that  sameness  of  preparation 
on  the  part  of  pupils  does  not  necessarily  bring  the  best 
results.  It  is  desirable  that  a  variety  of  material  bearing 
on  the  topic  shall  be  available  as  a  part  of  the  school 
equipment.  Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  depend  on  a 
variety  of  sources.  They  should  be  made  to  feel  that 
their  success,  in  large  part,  depends  upon  their  ability  to 
make  actual  contributions  to  the  classroom  discussions. 
The  classroom  becomes  a  clearing  house  for  the  ideas  of 
the  pupils.  False  ideas  are  corrected  and  concepts  are 
enriched  and  increased.  The  democratic  exchange  of 
ideas,  involving  a  maximum  of  mental  activity,  promotes 
rapid  development. 

Socializing  industrial  studies.  In  a  discussion  of  the 
silk  industry  some  pupil  may  visit  a  silk  factory,  a  silk 
wholesale  house,  or  a  silk  retail  house.  Some  child  may 
be  able  to  secure  silkworms.  Various  children  may  secure 
mulberry  leaves,  different  articles  made  from  silk,  stories 
relating  to  the  industry,  etc.  It  may  be  practicable  to 
assign  different  topics  to  different  members  of  the  class. 
The  class  may  hold  each  member  responsible  for  a  specific 
contribution ;  or  each  member  may  be  held  responsible 
for  a  specific  contribution,  and  all  may  be  assigned  cer- 
tain topics :  or  each  member  may  be  held  responsible  for 
the  same  topic,  but  a  spirit  of  rivalry  may  be  developed 
in  the  securing  of  really  valuable  material.    In  general,  it 


SOCIALIZATION  AND  FREE  ACTIVITY         149 

is  better  to  have  a  definite  nucleus  of  material  to  illustrate 
the  study,  in  part  as  an  organizing  center  for  the  individ- 
ual contributions,  in  part  to  take  the  place  of  materials 
that  the  children  cannot  at  the  moment  secure  from 
independent   sources. 

On  a  field  trip  the  teacher  may  ask  the  children  to  be 
observant  of  any  details  that  may  come  to  their  attention. 
The  teacher  may  ask  questions ;  the  pupils  may  ask 
questions.  Everyone  feels  the  responsibility  of  making 
a  contribution  either  by  directing  the  attention  of  the 
class  to  a  particular  thing  or  by  helping  to  answer  the 
questions  that  may  be  raised.  The  teacher  indirectly 
retains  her  leadership  of  the  party,  and  her  attitude  is 
unobtrusive. 

A  test  of  socialization.  A  test  of  successful  socialization 
is  made  when  a  teacher  is  called  out  of  the  room  or  when 
she  is  unable  to  attend  the  class  exercise.  This  is  par- 
ticularly significant  in  the  upper  grades,  since  with  the 
increasing  development  of  the  pupils,  if  socialization  is 
successful,  the  direct  influence  of  the  teacher  should  be 
loss  and  less  needful.  If  the  pupils  are  able  to  continue 
the  exercise  and  to  discuss  it  along  desirable  lines,  the 
teacher  can  flatter  herself  that  she  is  working  in  the  right 
direction.  In  a  room  where  the  personality  of  the  teacher 
is  dominant  a  class  may  dissipate  its  energies  when  the 
teacher  is  absent.  The  teacher,  as  a  leader,  presumably 
knows  how  to  conduct  herself  as  a  member  of  the  social 
group.  Her  aim  as  a  director  of  children  is  to  give  them 
this  same  knowledge  and  desire. 

Function  of  the  teacher.  The  responsibility  of  the 
teacher   is  just   as   great   in   socialized   work   as   in   an 


150  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

arbitrarily  directed  exercise.  In  the  lower  grades  the 
teacher  consciously  directs  the  work  of  the  class  with  defi- 
nite objectives  in  mind.  With  increasing  maturity  both 
teacher  and  pupils  are  guided  more  and  more  by  the  sub- 
ject matter,  and  as  the  pupils  come  nearer  and  nearer  to 
the  general  intellectual  level  of  the  teacher,  the  teacher's 
direct  and  indirect  leadership  becomes  less  important. 
Even  though  some  of  the  pupils  should  reach  the  same 
intellectual  level  as  the  teacher,  since  the  pupils  have 
learned  the  value  of  cooperative  work,  all  can  continue 
to  advance  through  helpful  group  study. 

Free  activity.  In  its  extreme  form  a  pupil  engaging  in 
"free  activity"  is  permitted  to  do  just  as  he  pleases.  The 
pupil,  during  a  free  period,  may  not  care  to  study  the 
particular  part  of  geography  that  the  class  is  studying,  or 
he  may  prefer  to  study  some  topic  wholly  foreign  to  geog- 
raphy, or  he  may  not  care  to  study  at  all.  A  pupil  left 
wholly  to  his  own  desires  may  engage  in  activities  that 
are  harmful  to  himself  or  inimical  to  the  best  interests  of 
society.  The  free-activity  period  permits  the  teacher  to 
make  a  special  study  of  the  child's  genuine  attitudes  and 
special  interests  and  gives  her  an  opportunity  to  note  his 
shortcomings  and  his  strong  points. 

Xo  individual  can  engage  in  absolutely  free  activity. 
Nature  conditions  man's  activities,  and  the  social  rela- 
tions of  the  individual  frequently  limit  his  activities. 
Consequently,  when  the  expression  "free  activity"  is 
used,  free  activity  within  limits  or  limited  free  activity 
is  meant.  There  is  a  considerable  difference  in  the  extent 
to  which  a  person  may  be  permitted  to  engage  in  free 
activity.    In  the  adult  group  there  are  all  gradations  of 


SOCIALIZATION  AND  FREE  ACTIVITY        151 

free  activity,  from  the  activity  of  the  man  who  always 
conforms  to  the  laws  because  of  desirable  habits  and 
attitudes,  and  therefore  never  is  compelled  by  society  to 
do  right,  to  the  activity  of  the  man  who  frequently  breaks 
the  laws  in  his  attempts  to  engage  in  antisocial  free  ac- 
tivity, and  therefore  finds  himself  restrained  by  the  stern 
hand  of  the  law.  The  problem  of  the  school  is  to  secure 
right  habits  and  attitudes,  so  that  the  pupil,  when  given 
relative  freedom  in  determining  his  actions,  will  always 
enter  into  desirable  social  relations. 

Desirable  free  activity  cannot  always  be  secured  by 
arbitrary  control.  The  pupil  needs  to  have  experiences  in 
initiating  activity.  The  socialized  recitation  permits  the 
child  to  propose  plans  of  action,  while  at  the  same  time 
his  plans  are  approved  or  modified  by  the  other  members 
of  the  group.  Through  active  participation  the  pupil 
secures  training  in  social  relations,  the  pleasant  or  un- 
pleasant effects  of  which  tend  to  establish  habits  and 
attitudes  of  a  desirable  nature. 

Geography  and  free  activity.  It  has  been  shown  that 
the  discussions  in  geography  can  be  readily  socialized.  In 
the  geography  classes,  therefore,  the  pupils  can  be  given 
that  training  which  will  tend  to  cause  the  free  activity  of 
the  individual  to  conform  to  social  needs.  Not  only  may 
this  social  free  activity  be  secured  through  the  coopera- 
tive efforts  involved  in  the  various  forms  of  class  organ- 
ization, but  the  subject  matter  itself  may  be  used  so  as 
to  permit  considerable  freedom  of  action. 

Examples  of  limited  free  activity:  a  country.  The 
pupils  of  a  geography  class  were  told  that  they  might 
read  anything  about  Japan  that  appealed  to  them.    They 


152  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

were  to  make  a  brief  report  at  the  next  recitation  period. 
As  each  pupil  recited  the  other  pupils  took  notes.  The 
pupils  were  asked  to  organize  the  notes  and  to  classify 
them.  The  pupils  then  secured  supplementary  contribu- 
tions. Each  pupil  attempted  to  organize  the  material 
presented.  As  a  result  of  the  miscellaneous  contributions 
the  individual  outlines  on  Japan  were  secured,  and  from 
the  individual  outlines  the  class  comparatively  agreed 
upon  a  single  outline.  The  class  proceeded  from  a  wealth 
of  disorganized  details  to  a  systematic  organization. 
Absolute  freedom  of  selection  of  material  bearing  on 
Japan  was  at  first  permitted,  but,  as  the  contributions 
were  made,  the  restricted  new  material  and  not  the  teacher 
gradually  limited  the  range  of  choice.  Finally  an  outline 
organization  of  material  was  effected  to  which  the  pupils 
adjusted  themselves  in  their  further  studies.  The  pupils 
were  not  forced  to  conform  to  an  outline  organization 
imposed  on  them  by  the  teacher,  but  they  gradually 
evolved  and  used  an  outline  organization  because  they 
had  discovered  its  value. 

Study  oj  a  continent  and  free  activity.  The  pupils  were 
told  to  glance  over  the  articles  in  their  textbooks  concern- 
ing the  different  countries  of  South  America.  They  were 
told  to  select  the  country  that  they  preferred  for  detailed 
study.  Each  pupil  was  held  to  the  material  of  the  text- 
book concerning  each  country.  The  periods  during  which 
each  country  would  be  discussed  were  indicated.  The 
pupils  who  had  made  a  special  study  of  a  country  con- 
tributed their  additional  information  at  the  time  that  the 
class  was  studying  about  that  country. 


SOCIALIZATION  AND  FREE  ACTIVITY        153 

Supplementary  reading.  During  the  time  that  the  class 
was  studying  Asia  pupils  were  given  a  reference  list  of 
supplementary  material  dealing  with  that  continent.  They 
were  told  that  the  list  was  given  them  merely  for  their 
convenience  and  that  they  might  make  a  selection  of  any 
other  materials  bearing  on  Asia.  This  work  was  not 
required,  but  the  pupils  were  made  to  feel  that  their 
supplementary  work  was  worth  while  through  the  class 
contributions  they  were  encouraged  to  make  and  through 
the  list  of  voluntarily  read  books  and  articles  submitted 
to  the  teacher. 

Socialization  and  free  activity  in  harmony.  Unanalyzed, 
" socialization"  and  "free  activity"  seem  to  be  contrasted 
terms.  The  two  phases  of  development  are  in  reality  dif- 
ferent viewpoints  of  the  same  educational  endeavor.  The 
individual  is  a  unit  of  society.  The  establishment  of  de- 
sirable relations  among  the  different  members  of  a  group 
by  appropriate  use  of  the  subject  matter  is  socialization ; 
the  unhampered  initiation  of  activity,  based  on  the  de- 
sires and  judgment  of  an  individual,  constitutes  free 
activity.  The  teacher,  with  the  assistance  of  content  sub- 
jects,— particularly  geography  and  history, — attempts  to 
develop  the  individual  in  such  a  way  that  his  actions,  as 
determined  by  himself,  will  harmonize  with  the  common 
group  welfare. 

Suggestions  for  Further  Study  : 

1.  Xote  the  characteristics  of  a  thoroughly  socialized  recitation. 

2.  Is  it  possible  for  a  person  to  engage  in  free  activity  and  at 
the  same  time  be  thoroughly  socialized  ? 


154  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

3.  Should  the  greater  emphasis  be  placed  on  the  socialization  of 
content  or  the  socialization  of  method  ? 

4.  Is  geography  superior  to  most  subjects  in  the  possibilities  that 
it  affords  for  highly  socialized  work? 

Selected  References : 

Barbour,  C.  W.  "  Free  Period  as  an  Educational  Factor,"  Kinder- 
garten and  First  Grade  (191 8),  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  133-139. 

Bigelow,  Luna  E.  "  The  Social  Life  in  Geography,"  Elementary 
School  Teacher,  Vol.  IX,  p.  113. 

Cummins.  Robert  A.  "  A  Completely  Socialized  School,"  School 
and  Society  (191 9),  Vol.  X,  pp.  685-692. 

Fox,  Florence  C.  "  Socialized  Recitations,"  School  and  Society 
(1 9 1 8).  Vol.  ATI,  pp.  650-651. 

Johnson.  D.  D.  "Socializing  Education,"  School  and  Society  (191S), 
Vol.  VII.  pp.  865-873. 

Miles,  U.  "Socializing  Outside  Reading,"  English  Journal  (191 7), 
Vol.  VI,  pp.  330-333- 

Pendleton.  C.  S.  "  Socialized  Recitation,"  American  Education 
(1920),  Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  307-312. 

Pierce,  B.  L.  "  Socialized  Recitation,"  Historical  Outlook  (1920), 
Vol.  XL,  pp.  307-317. 


CHAPTER    XI 

THE  RELATION   OF  THE   STUDY  PERIOD   TO   THE 
RECITATION   PERIOD 

SUPERVISED    AND    INDEPENDENT    STUDY 

Former  conception  of  the  recitation  period.  When  the 
recitation  period  was  regarded  as  a  ^hearing"  period  for 
lessons  learned  from  books,  emphasis  was  placed  on  repe- 
tition of  form  as  well  as  repetition  of  fact.  The  teacher, 
with  open  book,  followed  the  words  as  the  pupil  recited. 
The  more  nearly  the  pupil  could  recite  in  the  language  of 
the  book  the  better  his  recitation.  The  study  period,  deal- 
ing with  a  particular  topic,  necessarily  came  before  the 
recitation  period. 

Since  children  were  "  little  grown-ups,"  the  same  order 
of  preparation  and  recitation  and  the  same  method  of 
memorizing  and  reciting  was  followed  in  the  lower  and 
the  upper  grades.  The  principal  work  of  the  teacher  was 
to  assign  in  terms  of  pages  and  to  hear  recitations  so  as 
to  test  the  faithfulness  with  which  the  pupils  had  memo- 
rized the  lesson. 

Present  conception  of  the  recitation  period.  The  recita- 
tion period  has  come  to  assume  a  much  more  important 
place  than  the  mere  assigning  and  testing  of  the  book 
material.  Sheer  memory  work  of  assigned  material  in 
geography  has  been  reduced  to  a  relatively  insignificant 

155 


156  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

position.  The  recitation  period  is  a  meeting  period  for 
the  discussion  of  problems  and  for  the  opening  up  of  new 
lines  of  thought.  The  recitation  period  may  provide  ma- 
terial for  the  study  period ;  the  study  period  may  provide 
material  for  the  recitation  period.  These  periods  react 
upon  each  other.  The  pupil  secures  motives  in  class  for 
studying  certain  topics ;  in  the  studying  of  the  topics  the 
pupil  may  have  other  motives  aroused  which  he  will  com- 
municate to  the  rest  of  the  class  during  the  recitation 
period. 

A  motivated  assignment.  In  the  discussion  of  the  as- 
signment during  the  recitation  period  a  class  may  raise 
questions  which  cannot  be  answered  without  further 
study.  All  inadequately  answered  questions  may  be  listed 
as  a  basis  for  the  work  of  the  study  period.  Since  these 
questions  have  arisen  in  relation  to  needs,  conditions  are 
favorable  for  a  high  degree  of  mental  activity  during  the 
study  hour.  At  the  conclusion  of  a  discussion,  problems 
or  topics,  closely  related  to  the  discussion,  may  be  sug- 
gested by  pupils  and  teacher  as  a  basis  for  the  succeeding 
discussion.  If  the  pupils  have  a  hand  in  the  assignment 
of  their  work,  they  will  feel  an  individual  responsibility 
in  meeting  the  conditions.  It  may  be  necessary  occasion- 
ally, however,  for  the  teacher  to  make  the  assignment  or 
at  least  present  the  material  out  of  which  the  assignment 
naturally  arises.  The  teacher  attempts  to  present  the 
initial  material  in  such  a  way  that  the  interests  of  the 
children  are  aroused  in  the  material  and  in  the  problems 
suggested  by  the  material ;  the  teacher,  in  other  words, 
should  motivate  the  work.  The  motivation  may  be  se- 
cured in  the  recitation  work  as  a  whole,  in  the  recitation 


STUDY  PERIOD  AND  RECITATION  PERIOD    157 

work  in  part,  or  in  presentation  material  specially  pre- 
pared and  presented.  The  time  required  for  the  proper 
assignment  of  a  lesson  may  vary  from  the  whole  period 
to  a  few  minutes. 

The  study  period.  During  the  study  period  the  pupil 
proceeds  to  attempt  to  find  the  answers  to  the  questions 
that  have  been  raised.  He  may  become  interested  in 
supplementary  problems  and  may  attempt  to  solve  them 
on  his  own  initiative.  He  is  not  attempting  merely  to 
memorize  certain  statements  imposed  upon  him  by  the 
teacher,  but  he  is  trying  to  meet  the  requirements  of  his 
own  mental  life.  He  wrestles  with  problems  individually 
during  the  study  hour  and  as  a  member  of  the  group  dur- 
ing the  recitation  period.  In  this  way  the  individual 
and  the  social  are  admirably  combined  in  promoting  his 
development. 

Securing  motives  during  the  study  period.  Books  con- 
tain the  treasured  experiences  of  the  race.  Written  articles 
are  variably  interesting  to  various  individuals ;  they  may 
arouse  interest  and  motives  as  well  as  afford  the  materials 
necessary  for  the  satisfying  of  motive.  With  increasing 
maturity  pupils  should  come  to  depend  more  and  more 
upon  these  sources  of  knowledge.  If  pupils  are  referred 
to  books  only  to  satisfy  needs  already  aroused,  they  may 
come  to  depend  on  books  as  reference  material  for  the 
satisfying  of  these  needs.  Books,  however,  should  also 
arouse  needs  to  be  satisfied.  Pupils  should  learn  to  eval- 
uate material  for  themselves  and  to  initiate,  with  the  help 
of  books,  their  own  problems.  Pupils,  therefore,  may 
study  books  and  come  to  class  with  problems  that  were 
raised  and  answered  and  problems  that  were  raised  but  not 


158  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

answered.  An  undue  emphasis  should  not  be  placed  on 
poor  reading  material,  but  the  child  should  learn  to  dis- 
criminate between  the  good  and  the  bad. 

Motives  and  passing  interests.  The  adult  does  not 
always  follow  his  own  instinctive  interests  in  determining 
his  activities.  He  must  submit,  in  part,  to  the  opportuni- 
ties and  requirements  of  the  social  group.  His  maximum 
service  to  society  may  be  found  in  work  that  is  not 
according  to  his  own  inclinations.  His  economic  welfare 
and  the  welfare  of  those  dependent  upon  him  may  demand 
that  he  continue.  If  as  a  pupil  he  were  taught  only  to 
follow  his  own  interests,  or  to  pursue  the  problems  that 
inherently  were  appealing  to  him,  he  would  not  be  suit- 
ably prepared,  in  so  far  as  the  school  is  responsible,  for 
shouldering  his  social  responsibilities.  In  the  lower 
grades  it  is  desirable  that  the  passing  interests  of  the 
children  shall  be  considered.  They  have  not  yet  developed 
an  ability  to  engage  in  a  sustained,  prolonged  effort  to 
reach  a  desired  goal.  They  should  have  some  practice  in 
assigning  themselves  worth-while  tasks  or  of  doing  tasks 
assigned,  whether  these  tasks  are  agreeable  or  not.  The 
worth-whileness  of  such  tasks  should  be  seen  by  the  pupil. 

Supervision  of  geography  study.  The  geography  book 
is  placed  in  the  child's  hands  in  the  lower  grades,  when 
his  reading  vocabulary  is  still  very  limited.  While  geog- 
raphy is  studied  primarily  because  of  its  richness  of 
appropriate  content,  the  pupil  also  enlarges  his  reading 
vocabulary.  The  pupil  needs  assistance  in  reading  the 
page  and  in  interpreting  the  maps  and  pictures.  The  reci- 
tation period  may  frequently  become  a  supervised  study 
period,  in  which  the  pupils  are  assisted  to  master  the 


STUDY  PERIOD  AND  RECITATION  FERIOD     159 

material  of  the  book  accurately  and  economically.  An 
oral  development  of  a  topic  may  be  given  in  which  the 
words  with  which  the  pupils  may  have  difficulty  are 
placed  on  the  board.  The  pupils  may  then  be  asked  to 
read  the  discussion  of  the  topic  in  the  book.  The  oral 
presentation  and  the  emphasis  on  the  difficult  words  will 
prepare  them  to  study  individually. 

The  recitation  period  may  be  turned  into  a  supervised 
study  period  whenever  there  is  a  unit  of  work  in  the 
mastery  of  which  the  pupil  may  need  assistance  or  when- 
ever there  are  certain  habits  of  study  that  pupils  should 
be  assisted  to  form.  As  the  tools  of  geography  are 
mastered  the  need  for  supervised  study  will  lessen,  and 
the  teacher  will  be  able  to  give  the  pupils  any  needed 
assistance  in  connection  with  the  assignment.  The  pupils 
should  be  gradually  weaned  away  from  dependence  on  the 
teacher  during  their  study  period  to  a  dependence  on  their 
own  abilities.  There  is  no  pedagogical  objection  to  super- 
vised study  of  all  the  study  periods  in  geography, 
provided  the  teacher  assists  the  pupil  only  to  the  extent 
that  the  pupil,  unaided,  will  flounder.  Since  the  pupil 
should  have  increasing  opportunity  to  study  independ- 
ently, financial  economy  in  the  management  of  schools 
suggests  the  desirability  of  having  a  study  period  apart 
from  the  recitation  period,  the  latter  period  when  desir- 
able serving  the  need  for  a  supervised  study  period.  As 
has  been  noted,  the  recitation  period  may  be  a  study 
period  in  which  pupils  and  teacher,  studying  together, 
may  find  problems  for  special  study  in  their  study  hour. 

Supervised  study,  in  instances,  has  been  abused  by 
teachers  who   have   felt   that   they  must  be   constantly 


160  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

talking  with  the  children.  The  independent  study  of  the 
children  has  been  interrupted  ;  the  pupils,  through  concert 
study,  have  not  had  an  opportunity  to  reflect  and  master 
the  material.  Independent  ability  and  initiative  have  been 
smothered.  It  is  a  wise  teacher  who  has  learned  to 
assist  enough  but  not  too  much. 

Recitation  and  study  as  factors  oj  the  same  lesson  unit. 
The  recitation  and  the  study  period  should  be  regarded 
as  interlocking  parts  of  the  same  unit  of  study.  The  wide- 
awake and  efficient  teacher  will  constantly  vary  her  work 
so  that  whether  the  pupil  is  studying  by  himself  or  as  a 
member  of  a  group  the  two  periods  will  mutually  reen- 
force  each  other.  Each  period  should  afford  information, 
interpretation,  and  inspiration  for  the  valuable  utilization 
of  time  in  the  other. 

Teaching  pupils  how  to  study.  The  primary  purpose 
of  supervised  or  directed  study  is  to  teach  the  child  how 
to  study  economically.  The  pupil  needs  training  in  the 
use  of  the  textbook,  supplementary  readers,  newspapers, 
magazines,  the  dictionary,  the  encyclopedia,  and  maps 
and  globes.  He  needs  training  in  learning  how  to  express 
himself  through  maps,  diagrams,  charts,  drawings,  models, 
and  language.  He  needs  to  learn  how  to  read  quickly  and 
at  the  same  time  to  understand,  organize,  and  remember 
that  which  is  read.  He  needs  to  know  how  to  get  appro- 
priate material  from  a  library.  He  needs  to  learn  how  to 
work  desirably  with  other  people.  He  needs  to  learn  how 
to  keep  himself  physically  in  good  condition  for  study 
and  how  to  secure  a  favorable  physical  and  social  environ- 
ment for  work.  All  these  needs  can  be  met  through  the 
study  of  geography.    The  teacher  should  not  expect  the 


STUDY  PERIOD  AND  RECITATION  PERIOD     161 

pupils  to  learn  all  these  things  through  the  haphazard 
method,  but  she  should  supervise  the  work  of  each  child 
sufficiently  to  insure  that  the  needed  knowledges,  skills, 
habits,  and  attitudes  have  been  formed.  The  pupil  will 
learn  through  imitation,  through  reflection,  and  through 
trial-and-error  experience. 

If  the  pupil  has  acquired  a  wide  range  of  subject  matter 
indicating  how  man  has  adjusted  himself  to  the  earth,  if 
the  pupil  has  the  ability  to  use  the  tools  of  geography  in 
securing  needed  knowledge,  if  he  has  a  broad,  sympathetic 
outlook  toward  mankind,  and  if  he  has  developed  an 
interest  in  world  as  well  as  local  affairs,  then  the  teacher 
may  confidently  feel  that  she  has  been  directing  the 
geography  work  along  desirable  lines. 

Suggestions  for  Further  Study : 

1.  Has  "supervised  study"  resulted  in  marked  improvement  in 
the  educational  program  ? 

2.  Select  a  topic  in  a  textbook  and  indicate  how  you  would  teach 
a  group  of  pupils  how  to  study. 

3.  Assign  a  lesson  to  a  class  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure  a  maximum 
of  study  during  the  study  period. 

4.  Attempt  to  evaluate  a  recitation  period.  Would  the  pupils 
have  advanced  more  rapidly  if  a  study  period  had  been  substituted  ? 

Selected  References : 

Farmiam,  C.  E.    "  Supervised  Study,*'  Education  (191 9),  Vol.  XL, 

pp.  1 71-177. 
Hall-Quest.  A.  I..    "  Supervised  Study  in  the  Grades,"  American 

Education  (1920).  Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  396-401. 
Horn,    Ernest.     "  Relation    of    Silent    Reading    to    Efficiency    in 

Study."   America)!   Education  (1920).  pp.   34S-351. 
Minor.  Ruby.    "  Supervised  Study,"  School  and  Home  Education 

(1920),  Vol.  XXXIX,  pp.  1 68- 1  70. 


PART  FIVE.   THE  PROJECT,  OR  ACTIVE, 
METHOD 


CHAPTER   XII 
THE    MOTIVATION    OF    GEOGRAPHY 

Nature  of  motivation.  The  modern  viewpoint  in  edu- 
cation has  materially  affected  not  only  the  content  of 
geography  but  also  its  method.  It  is  not  enough  that 
someone  shall  believe  that  certain  topics  should  be  studied 
by  the  child  because  of  their  value  to  adults.  A  child 
makes  better  progress  in  relation  to  those  situations  in 
which  he  has  an  inherent  interest.  An  attempt  should  be 
made,  therefore,  to  relate  the  materials  to  the  child's 
interests  and  experiences  and  to  arouse  within  him  a 
motive  that  will  cause  him  to  attack  the  situation  with 
enthusiasm  and  perseverance. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  child  the  chief  motives  for 
worth-while  geography  work  are : 

i.  Curiosity  with  reference  to  the  world  and  its  people.  This 
may  give  a  general  interest  in  what  is  happening  throughout 
the  world,  or  what  the  people  in  other  parts  of  the  world  are 
doing,  or  it  may  concern  itself  with  the  satisfaction  of  interest 
in  important  current  happenings,  as  the  war  between  Russia 
and  Japan,  internal  strife  in  Mexico,  and  the  efforts  of  Presi- 
dent Wilson  to  bring  about  peace,  the  Balkan  war,  or  the 
present  [recent]  European  war. 

2.  The  relation  of  geographical  facts  to  economic  values,  as 
developed  from  real  problems  of  the  child. 

3.  The  social  value  of  geographical  data,  since  they  fur- 
nish a  basis  for  the  understanding  of  current  happenings,  the 

16^ 


1 66  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

planning  of  trips  and  outings,  and  are  constantly  involved  in 
reading  and  conversation. 

4.  The  play  motive  involved  in  planning  grown-up  experi- 
ences and  likewise  in  the  use  of  geographical  facts  in  games 
and  contests. 

5.  The  connection  of  geography  with  romance  and  adven- 
ture as  needed  in  books  of  travel  and  adventure. 

These  separate  motives  seldom  occur  singly,  but  are  usually 
combined  in  any  worth-while  problem  in  geography.1 

Geography  related  to  real  conditions.  The  child  should 
feel  that  he  is  studying  about  a  real  world,  inhabited  by 
real  people,  who  are  engaged  in  real  activities.  How  many 
children  have  studied  about  Palestine  at  Sunday  school 
and  about  another  Palestine  in  school  ?  How  many  chil- 
dren, ignorant  of  the  fact  that  they  were  Hying  on  or 
near  a  glacial  moraine,  have  made  a  bookish  study  of 
glaciers  and  their  work?  How  many  children  living 
within  a  natural  region  have  recited  glibly  book  informa- 
tion about  the  region  without  being  aware  that  they  were 
living  within  the  region  discussed  ?  How  many  children, 
when  discussing  earth  features,  products,  or  regions  at 
a  distance,  have  thought  of  these  regions  as  imaginary 
creations  to  be  classed  with  Jack  and  the  Beanstalk  and 
Little  Red  Riding  Hood  ? 

Motivation  through  current  events.  Current  events 
may  frequently  be  used  with  excellent  results  in  motivat- 
ing geography  topics.  Almost  every  day  the  daily  news- 
papers contain  news  items  from  such  important  cities 
as  Chicago,  New  York,  San  Francisco,  and  Boston,  and 

]  H.   B.  Wilson  and  G.  M.  Wilson,  The  Motivation  of  School  Work 

(Houghton  Mifllin  Company,   1016),  pp.   136-137. 


THE  MOTIVATION  OF  GEOGRAPHY  167 

frequently  from  such  important  foreign  cities  as  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  Buenos  Aires,  Tokyo,  and  Liverpool.  There  are 
accounts  of  economic  activities,  related  to  the  production 
of  rice,  sugar,  cotton,  wheat,  coffee,  etc.  If  the  pupil  is 
interested  in  current  events,  the  location  of  the  places 
mentioned  will  add  to  their  value.  The  atlas  is  a  desir- 
able reference  book  for  place  geography.  "Get  the  atlas 
habit"  is  good  advice.  Not  only  does  place  geography 
assist  in  vitalizing  current  events,  but  the  student  may 
use  current  events  as  a  basis  for  the  interpretation  of 
geographic  situations. 

Since  many  activities  are  closely  related,  when  a  motive 
for  looking  up  materials  is  given  through  current  events, 
the  results  of  study  will  probably  suggest  other  topics  that 
it  would  be  worth  while  to  study,  so  that  a  whole  series 
of  related  topics  or  problems  will  successively  be  un- 
covered, and  the  pupil  will  find  himself  spontaneously 
passing  from  topic  to  topic.  The  original  interest  created 
is  genuine,  having  its  origin  in  present-day  activities.  The 
successive  interests  aroused  are  genuine,  because  they 
have  been  aroused  in  relation  to  and  as  an  extension  of  the 
original  genuine  interest.  A  few  of  the  leading  magazines 
which  stress  economic  development  should  be  available. 
The  daily  weather  maps  are  valuable  not  only  in  arousing 
an  interest  in  weather  conditions  but  in  helping  to  explain 
numerous  economic  situations.  The  publications  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey,  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, and  state  boards  performing  similar  functions 
are  valuable. 

Motivation  through  local  activities.  Activities  of  the 
local  community  may  frequently  be  used  as  a  point  of 


1 68     THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

departure.  The  formal  opening  of  the  barge  system  on  the 
Mississippi  at  St.  Louis  by  the  Federal  government  was 
used  as  a  point  of  departure  for  an  intensive  discussion 
of  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi.  The  ceremony  was 
attended  by  a  number  of  students,  and  the  press  reports 
were  used  to  supplement  the  first-hand  observations.  A 
visit  to  the  weather  bureau  interested  the  children  in  a 
detailed  study  of  the  principles  of  weather  forecasting.  A 
visit  to  a  small  valley,  and  a  study  of  forms  and  processes 
there,  interested  the  children  in  a  more  detailed  study  of 
similar  but  larger  forms  elsewhere.  A  visit  to  an  indus- 
trial establishment  aroused  an  interest  in  knowing  more 
about  the  economic  world. 

Motivation  through  construction  work.  A  situation 
may  frequently  be  made  appealing  through  Ihe  use  of 
construction  materials. 

"Illustrative  handwork,"  as  it  is  called,  is  all  right  if  it  is 
the  result  of  free  expression  on  the  part  of  the  child.  Some- 
times the  "organizator"  kills  all  handwork  values.  Not  so 
long  ago  I  wanted  to  photograph  a  table  representation  of  a 
village  of  primitive  peoples  made  by  children  in  a  third-grade 
class,  but  on  making  inquiries  into  the  methods  of  teaching 
this  particular  project  I  found  that  it  was  not  handwork  of 
the  free  expressional  type  but  of  the  "exercise"  type.  There 
had  been  a  series  of  lessons  in  dictated  paper-construction 
work.  The  result  was  thirty  to  fifty  huts,  thirty  to  fifty  boats, 
as  many  more  trees,  and  so  on,  until  each  child  had  made  at 
least  one  of  each  of  the  component  parts  of  that  village.  It 
was  not  even  a  cooperative  handwork  project,  because  no  in- 
dividual or  group  of  individuals  were  made  to  feel  responsible 
for  any  particular  part  of  the  project.  Was  that  village  the 
outcome  of  the  child's  interest  in  the  subject  ?    Whose  village 


THE  MOTIVATION  OF  GEOGRAPHY  169 

was  it — the  child's,  the  teacher's,  or  the  person's  who  planned 
the  course  of  study?  What  had  the  children  got  out  of  the 
four  to  six  hours  of  work  ?  Perhaps  a  little  more  skill  in 
handling  paper,  ruler,  pencil,  scissors,  paste,  and  crayon.  I 
doubt  if  the  majority  of  children  in  grades  one  to  four  feel 
the  need  for  skill,  especially  in  paper  construction,  where  so 
often  the  scissors  come  in  so  handily  in  rectifying  a  mistake  in 
measuring  or  folding. 

Let  us  make  a  contrast  with  another  group  of  children  who 
constructed  an  Eskimo  village  when  the  teacher  used  hand- 
work to  illustrate  a  story.  In  a  second-grade  class  the  children 
had  been  reading  a  story  about  two  little  Eskimo  boys,  and 
because  of  their  interest  in  the  story  and  in  the  illustrations  in 
the  book  they  had  asked  and  obtained  permission  from  the 
teacher  to  picture  the  story  on  the  table.  Realizing  that  if  the 
project  was  to  be  effective  it  must  be  finished  before  the  young- 
sters lost  interest,  the  teacher  had  assisted  wherever  she  felt 
the  problem  was  beyond  their  capabilities.  She  had  made  the 
form  for  the  igloo,  and  the  wigs  for  the  dolls ;  otherwise  it 
was  the  children's  own  work.  The  children  had  placed  mir- 
rors to  represent  water ;  covered  the  table  with  cotton  batting 
for  snow ;  stained  and  dressed  the  dolls ;  made  make-believe 
utensils  and  implements ;  and  staged  the  dolls  with  the  neces- 
sary "props"  to  illustrate  the  pursuits  of  the  pupils.  The 
teacher  suggested  that  several  of  the  children  tell  me  the 
story  represented.  I  selected  three,  who  told  me  the  story  in 
serial  form.  Pointing  to  the  various  groups  on  the  table,  the 
children  told  me  about  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  Eski- 
mos and  were  able  to  answer  practically  all  my  "why"  ques- 
tions which  I  had  asked  in  order  to  test  the  depth  of  their 
knowledge.  What  had  these  children  learned  ?  First,  they  had 
handled  a  variety  of  materials ;  second,  they  had  had  some 
experience  in  cooperative  work  (the  class  had  been  divided 
into  groups,  each  group  being  responsible  for  a  scene) ;  third, 
when  doubts  arose  in  any  group  concerning  the  scene  they 


170  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

were  depicting  they  had  read  and  re-read,  if  necessary,  those 
portions  of  the  story  which  dealt  with  their  project,  and  thus 
in  giving  concrete  expression  to  their  ideas  they  had  clarified 
any  hazy  notions  which  they  may  have  had,  and  the  project 
took  the  place  of  a  review.1 

Motivation  through  other  subjects.  Experiences  of 
children  through  other  subjects  may  be  used  as  an  ap- 
proach to  a  geographic  topic.  Literary  selections  may  be 
used.  "The  Landing  of  the  Pilgrims"  may  be  used  to 
arouse  an  interest  in  the  New  England  States.  History  is 
very  helpful.  The  explorations  and  settlements  of  the 
French  in  the  Mississippi  Basin  may  be  used  in  arous- 
ing an  interest  in  this  region.  The  explorations  of 
Mackenzie,  Hudson,  Magellan,  Amundsen,  and  Peary  are 
significant  in  arousing  a  present-day  interest  in  the  geog- 
raphy of  the  regions  in  question  as  they  influenced  these 
explorers  and  as  they  have  influenced  present-day  activi- 
ties. The  teacher  herself  can  frequently  contribute  some- 
thing of  considerable  interest  out  of  which  problems  may 
arise.  Different  members  of  the  class  may  make  contri- 
butions that  will  constitute  an  excellent  basis  for  a  more 
detailed  discussion. 

Interests  and  motives.  Motivation  suggests  both  a 
forward  and  a  backward  control.  The  new  situation 
should  hinge  into  the  child's  interests  and  experiences 
and  at  the  same  time  should  arouse  a  definite  motive, 
prompting  the  child  to  act.  Various  subjects  may  furnish 
the  means  of  motivating  a  geography  topic,  or  work  pre- 
viously done  in  geography  may  be  used.  The  unorganized 

1  A.  Adele  Rudolph,  "Industry  as  an  Elementary  School  Subject," 
Industrial-Arts  Magazine  (May,  1920),  Vol.  IX,  pp.  181-182. 


THE  MOTIVATION  OF  GEOGRAPHY  171 

out-of-school  experiences  of  the  children  are  invalu- 
able. Current  events  of  the  community  or  of  other  com- 
munities may  be  used.  Recreational,  economic,  and 
political  activities  may  furnish  the  needed  stimuli.  If  an 
initial  interest  has  been  aroused,  if  a  well-defined  goal  has 
been  set  up,  the  worth-whileness  of  which  is  felt  by  the 
pupils,  the  teacher  will  be  helpful  in  directing  the  work  in 
such  a  way  that  the  children  not  only  will  feel  the  value  of 
the  work  but  will  be  interested  in  continuing  their  efforts 
until  the  goal  is  reached.  Motivation  does  not  mean  that 
the  pupils  should  be  permitted  to  shift  their  activities  as 
their  passing  interests  shift.  When  a  well-defined  unit  of 
activity  has  been  adopted  by  the  class,  even  though  some 
of  the  steps  involved  in  reaching  the  goal  may  not  make 
a  strong  appeal,  the  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  stay 
with  the  unit  until  their  efforts  have  been  rewarded  with 
success. 

Suggestions  for  Further  Study : 

1.  Show  that  there  may  be  danger  that  motivation,  improperly 
understood,  may  lead  to  a  series  of  petty  achievements  on  a  low 
intellectual  level. 

2.  Is  geography  a  relatively  easy  subject  to  motivate?    Explain. 

3.  Motivate  a  geographic  topic  by  reference  to  some  local  situ- 
ation with  which  the  children  are  acquainted. 

4.  Motivate  a  geographic  topic  by  reference  to  some  current- 
events  topic  as  discussed  in  a  newspaper. 

5.  Motivate  a  geographic  topic  through  experiences  the  class  has 
gained  in  studying  some  other  subject. 

6.  What  is  the  relation  of  "interests"  and  "motives"  to 
motivation  ? 


172  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Selected  References : 

Branom,  M.  E.  The  Project  Method  in  Education,  chap,  v, 
pp.  79-106. 

Emerson,  P.  "  Geography  for  the  Grades,"  Journal  of  Education 
(1913),  Vol.  LXXVIII,  pp.  579-580,  660-661. 

Hammond,  M.  C.  "  School-room  Suggestions  for  Geography," 
American  Education  (191 7),  Vol.  XX,  pp.  413-414. 

Henry,  Ruby  A.  "  A  Kentucky  Method  in  the  Study  of  Commer- 
cial Geography,"  Journal  of  Education  (1914),  Vol.  LXXIX, 

P-  273- 
Hodgson,  E.   "  Motivation  of  School  Work,"  American  Education, 

Vol.  XVIII,  pp.  140-143. 
Holtz,   F.  L.     Principles  and  Methods  in  Teaching   Geography, 

chap,  ii,  pp.   6-12. 
Kelton,   M.  E.    "  Current  Events  and   Geography,"  Journal  of 

Geography  (191 1),  Vol.  X,  pp. '57-59. 
Nolan,   Ona  I.     "  Ways  of   Raising  Geography  Teaching  above 

the  Commonplace,"  Journal  of  Geography  (191 8),  Vol.  XVII, 

pp.  41-49- 
Von   Engeln,   O.   D.    "  Utilizing   Current   Events  in   Geography 

Teaching,"  Journal   of  Geography   (1919),    Vol.    XVIII,    pp. 

1 09- 1 1 1. 
Walther,  E.    "  Suggestions  for  a  Study  of  Latin  America  Based 

upon  our  Trade  Relations,"  Journal  of  Geography  (1920),  Vol. 

XIX,  pp.  41-55. 
Wilson,    II.   15.   and  G.  M.     Motivation  of  School  Work  (191 6), 

PP-  3-57,  I33-I58- 
Wilson,  J.  R.     "  Children's  Participation  in  War-Time  Activities 
and  its  Influence  in  Educational  Work,"  American  Education 
(1918),  Vol.  XXII,  pp.  348-35I- 


CHAPTER   XIII 

THE  PROBLEM  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 
GEOGRAPHY 

The  nature  of  a  problem.  In  meeting  the  situations  of 
life  man  depends  on  (i)  instincts,  (2)  habits,  (3)  memory, 
and  (4)  reason. 

1.  In  so  far  as  the  needed  response  is  made  instinc- 
tively, the  intellect  plays  a  minor  part  in  bringing  about 
the  reaction. 

2.  Through  an  adequate  number  of  repetitions  of  the 
same  type  of  experience  man  forms  a  habit  of  definite 
response.  When  a  situation  can  be  met  by  a  response  on 
the  habit  level  the  thought  processes  are  eliminated  or 
reduced  to  a  minimum. 

3.  Many  memory  impressions  are  made  on  the  mind 
of  man  through  the  stimuli  of  environing  materials.  The 
nervous  system  is  constantly  receiving  stimuli.  Vari- 
ous concrete  objects,  as  buildings,  topographic  features, 
maps,  and  globes,  may  be  observed ;  the  words  of  a  book 
may  be  memorized ;  the  statement  of  another  person  may 
be  remembered ;  a  suggestion  that  has  entered  the  mind 
may  be  retained.  The  more  or  less  lasting  impressions 
thus  made  are  the  results  of  direct,  simple  relations  of  the 
mind  to  materials.  The  quality  of  memory  impression  is 
dependent   on   the   intensity   with  which   the   individual 

'73 


174  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

concentrates  on  the  thing  to  be  remembered  and  the 
number  of  repetitions.  A  considerable  part  of  the  educa- 
tion of  man  comes  through  memory  impressions. 

4.  When  instincts  or  habits  or  simple  memory  recalls 
are  inadequate  to  meet  the  conditions  of  a  situation  suc- 
cessfully, the  attention  of  the  individual  is  intensively 
directed  toward  the  situation.  If  the  mind  simply  recog- 
nizes the  new  elements  of  the  situation,  the  memory 
impressions  are  increased.  If  the  new  elements  are  not 
immediately  absorbed,  and  if  the  situation  that  confronts 
the  individual  arouses  a  mental  query  that  involves  the 
marshaling  of  past  experiences,  the  securing  of  additional 
information,  or  the  exercise  of  reflective  thinking  and 
judgment  for  its  interpretation,  reason  is  called  into  play, 
and  the  individual  is  confronted  with  a  genuine  problem. 
The  new  elements  in  a  situation  requiring  thought  proc- 
esses for  their  interpretation  constitute  the  problem  or 
problems  arising  out  of  the  situation. 

Problem  work  versus  memory  work.  Problems  as  well 
as  memory  work  have  inevitably  entered  into  the  school 
activities  of  the  past,  but  there  has  been  a  tendency 
unduly  to  emphasize  the  latter.  The  topical  outline  in 
geography  may  be  taken  up  from  the  problem  standpoint, 
but  frequently  the  dominant  and  almost  exclusive 
emphasis  is  placed  on  memory  work.  Much  of  the  so- 
called  problem  work,  in  fact,  is  largely  memory  work  with 
an  improved  organization  of  subject  matter.  If  a  pupil 
reads  an  article  in  which  the  material  bearing  on  a  prob- 
lem has  been  selected,  evaluated,  and  organized  by  another 
person,  the  chances  are  that  he  will  accept  unquestion- 
ingly  the  material  thus  presented.    The  one  who  wrote 


THE  PROBLEM  METHOD  175 

the  article  undoubtedly  had  a  problem,  but  the  one  who 
reads  the  article  may  simply  secure  impressions  of  the 
details  of  the  problem  that  belonged  to  another.  The 
reading  of  such  articles  is  valuable  because  the  student, 
in  following  the  solution  of  a  problem  by  another,  is  be- 
coming acquainted  with  approved  methods  of  problem- 
solving. 

The  problem  organization  of  material  is  preferable  to 
a  mere  topical  organization  as  memory  textbook-material, 
since  the  article  has  a  definite  viewpoint  that  makes  its 
consideration  meaningful.  There  is  a  danger,  however, 
that  the  pupil  may  learn  to  depend  too  readily  on  authori- 
ties. He  may  tend  to  become  a  mere  transmitter  of  the 
ideas  of  another,  thus  developing  few  qualities  of  leader- 
ship or  of  initiative.  The  memoriter  route  of  problem- 
solving  tends  to  develop  followers ;  the  reasoning  route  of 
problem-solving  tends  to  develop  leaders.  Each  pupil 
should  be  given  every  possible  chance  to  develop  quali- 
ties of  leadership  as  well  as  qualities  of  followship.  Pupils 
should  secure,  evaluate,  and  organize  material  from  vari- 
ous sources  in  solving  problems  of  which  detailed  solu- 
tions are  not  available  to  them.  A  detailed  solution  of 
a  geography  problem  bears  much  the  same  relation  to  the 
problem  that  a  tcpony"  in  a  foreign  language  or  in  math- 
ematics bears  to  the  contents  of  those  subjects,  with  all 
the  attendant  advantages  and  disadvantages. 

Not  only  for  self-realization  but  for  the  social  welfare 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  schools  to  emphasize  problem  work. 
Progress  is  dependent  on  constructive  changes  and  addi- 
tions. In  schools  emphasizing  memory  work  which  is 
not  related  to  problems  the  work  of  the  pupil  who  can 


176  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

retain  impressions,  irrespective  of  whether  he  is  a  keen 
thinker,  is  at  a  premium.  The  ability  of  pupils  in  solving 
problems  may  not  be  tested.  The  pupils  who  have 
capacity  for  leadership  may  take  very  little  interest  in 
memory  work  simply  as  memory  work,  and  may  make  a 
very  poor  showing.  If  memory  work  is  related  to  worth- 
while problems,  however,  it  will  frequently  be  found  that 
some  pupils  with  excellent  memories  have  ceased  to  use 
their  memories  because  they  could  not  see  the  use  of 
exerting  themselves  to  memorize  merely  for  the  sake  of 
memorizing.  The  school  should  place  emphasis  on  the 
ability  to  observe  and  to  retain,  but  in  addition  it  should 
encourage  and  demand  that  each  child  shall  be  able  to 
use  information  and  to  secure  further  needed  information 
in  relation  to  actual  problems. 

Relation  of  memory  to  problem  work.  Man  can  learn 
much  through  sense  impressions  and  the  storing  up  of 
these  impressions  in  memory.  Instinctively  he  becomes 
acquainted  with  his  environment.  The  memory  route 
tends  to  anticipate  problems  that  may  arise ;  the  reason- 
ing route  tends  to  create  a  need  for  information  as  a 
basis  for  the  solution  of  a  problem.  Problems,  therefore, 
tend  to  supplement  an  instinctive  interest  in  acquiring 
information  with  a  rational  interest  because  of  the  need 
of  information  in  meeting  the  intellectual  difficulty. 
Problems,  in  other  words,  furnish  another  motive,  closely 
related  to  human  accomplishment,  for  the  acquiring  of 
information. 

A  good  memory  is  not  to  be  disparaged,  and  every 
effort  should  be  made  to  teach  each  child  to  memorize 
economically.    In  fact,  while  a  person  may  have  a  good 


THE  PROBLEM  METHOD  177 

memory  and  be  a  poor  reasoner,  it  is  very  difficult  to  be 
a  good  reasoner  without  having  a  very  good  memory. 
Problem-solving  involves  a  consideration  of  past  experi- 
ences in  the  interpretation  of  a  situation,  and  a  treach- 
erous memory  will  not  permit  these  experiences  to  be 
readily  recalled.  Problem-solving  frequently  involves  the 
securing  of  additional  material  in  relation  to  the  situa- 
tion, and  a  poor  memory  will  seriously  handicap  the 
person  in  his  attempt  to  retain,  interpret,  and  apply  the 
material  secured. 

In  the  school  with  a  well-balanced  curriculum  both 
memorizing  and  reasoning  will  be  emphasized.  In  spite 
of  an  equal  opportunity  to  all,  it  will  be  found  that 
pupils,  because  of  lack  of  capacity  or  because  of  lack  of 
application,  will  group  themselves.  Some  pupils  accept 
blindly  and  unquestioningly  the  detailed  solution  of  a 
problem  by  another ;  some  follow  readily  and  thought- 
fully the  reasoning  of  another,  approving  or  disapproving 
according  to  personal  opinion ;  some  are  able  to  make 
partial  but  inadequate  contributions  toward  the  solving 
of  a  problem ;  while  others  not  only  can  follow  critically 
the  interpretation  of  a  problem  by  another  but  have  suffi- 
cient initiative  and  reasoning  ability  to  solve  problems 
with  but  little  assistance.  The  teacher  will  not  arbi- 
trarily group  the  pupils  into  leaders  and  followers;  but, 
because  of  the  varying  capacities  and  abilities,  if  oppor- 
tunity is  given  all  for  real  problem-solving  this  grouping 
will  tend  to  appear.  The  proper  emphasis  of  problem 
work  will  enable  a  teacher  to  grade  the  pupils  on  in- 
formation retained,  but,  what  is  far  more  important,  the 
pupils  can   be  graded  with   respect   to   their   ability   to 


178  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

use  information  in  relation  to  new  situations  requiring 
analysis  and  interpretation. 

A  pressing  practical  question  among  teachers  concerns 
the  relation  of  problems  to  the  information  necessary  for 
their  solution.  Among  the  varying  viewpoints  presented 
are  the  following:  (i)  the  pupil  should  study  the  in- 
formation first  and  then  should  be  confronted  with  a 
problem  that  will  test  his  ability  to  use  the  information 
acquired;  (2)  the  pupil  should  have  a  problem  first, 
which  can  be  used  as  a  motive  in  inducing  him  to  se- 
cure the  needed  information;  (3)  the  problem  should  be 
so  far  related  to  the  acquired  experiences  of  the  child 
that  he  can  use  them,  but  its  solution  should  also  involve 
the  securing  of  additional  information.  While  there  may 
be  occasions  that  justify  the  application  of  the  first  two 
viewpoints,  in  general  the  third  viewpoint  is  educationally 
the  most  promising,  since  the  child,  in  the  same  problem, 
not  only  relates  the  problem  to  some  of  his  past  experi- 
ences and  interests  but  at  the  same  time  enlarges  or 
supplements  his   experiences. 

Evolution  of  the  problem  method.  In  organizing  the 
content  of  scientific  geography  a  standardized  outline  has 
been  employed.  In  the  days  when  the  pupil  was  forced 
to  adjust  himself  to  content,  the  standardized  outline  was 
adopted  in  the  writing  of  textbooks.  The  topical  outline, 
including  location,  area,  topography,  climate,  soils,  plant 
and  animal  life,  and  human  activities,  was  used  in  the 
consideration  of  each  country.  Serious  overlapping  was 
avoided,  the  country  was  systematically  studied,  and  the 
pupil  could  study  the  last  topic  of  the  outline  with  a 


THE  PROBLEM  METHOD  179 

feeling  of  finality,  for  had  he  not  mastered  the  whole 
outline  applied   to  a  particular   country? 

When  the  emphasis  was  shifted  from  descriptive  to 
interpretative  geography  the  outline  organization  was 
retained,  but,  in  addition  to  the  statement  of  facts  con- 
cerning each  topic,  as  climate,  an  attempt  was  made  to 
explain  the  particular  climate  and  to  determine  the  effects 
of  climate  on  life  forms.  This  was  a  decided  improvement 
over  the  loose  clustering  of  material  about  topics.  A  con- 
sideration of  the  effects  of  a  single  fact,  as  climate,  on  the 
activities  of  the  people  tended  to  focus  the  attention  of 
students  of  geography  on  the  life  responses.  It  was 
clearly  seen,  however,  that  a  complex  of  physical  factors 
combines  to  influence  human  responses.  There  has  been 
a  tendency,  consequently,  to  consider  life  responses  and 
to  attempt  to  evaluate  all  physical  factors  that  have 
influenced  these  responses.  Even  the  singling  out  of  a 
certain  type  of  activity  for  interpretation  is  regarded 
as  inadequate.  The  present  tendency  is  to  emphasize 
regional  geography  by  attempting  to  interpret  the  com- 
plex of  life  activities  in  relation  to  the  complex  of  the 
physical  environs. 

The  trend  in  the  evolution  of  geography  method  is  in 
harmony  with  the  trend  in  the  evolution  of  scientific  geog- 
raphy. Since  teaching  has  been  largely  by  the  textbook 
method,  the  standardized  topical  outline  of  the  book  has 
prevailed.  The  pupil  memorized  more  or  less  literally  the 
words  of  the  book  and  the  locations  of  places  as  indicated 
by  the  maps.  As  interpretative  material  has  been  included 
in  the  textbooks  the  pupils  have  also  memorized  this  type 


180  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

of  material.  The  organization  of  parts  of  the  textbook 
about  problems  has  made  the  textbook  much  more  appeal- 
ing to  pupils.  Some  provision  has  been  made  for  independ- 
ent problem-solving.  The  scientific  geographer  insists  that 
a  geographer  in  training  must  do  independent  work  in 
geography,  which,  according  to  the  modern  viewpoint  of 
geography,  is  equivalent  to  problem-solving.  The  teacher 
likewise  insists  that  the  pupil  shall  do  a  certain  amount  of 
independent  problem-solving,  not  for  the  purpose  of  be- 
coming a  trained  geographer  but  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  a  maximum  development. 

Some  materials  for  problem- solving.  What  should  be 
the  nature  of  a  geography  textbook  in  order  that  problem 
work  may  be  properly  emphasized  ?  There  should  be 
topics  developed  in  detail  from  the  problem  standpoint, 
both  for  the  benefit  of  the  pupils  who  primarily  follow 
the  reasoning  of  another  and  for  the  benefit  of  the  pupils 
who  carefully  check  the  statements  made.  It  is  altogether 
legitimate  to  profit  from  the  experiences  of  others,  and 
many  more  problems  can  be  taken  up  in  a  limited  time, 
although  extensity  of  experience  is  substituted  for  in- 
tensity of  experience.  The  textbook  should  in  part  be  so 
arranged  that  a  considerable  amount  of  original  problem- 
solving  is  possible.  There  should  be  a  gradation  from 
developed  problems  to  problems  to  be  developed.  Some 
problems  may  be  worked  out  in  part,  including  a  state- 
ment of  appropriate  pages  on  which  pertinent  material 
may  be  found.  Some  problems  may  be  outlined  with  ap- 
propriate references.  Problems  should  involve  the  use  of 
pictures,  maps,  diagrams,  encyclopedias,  statistical  tables, 


THE  PROBLEM  METHOD  181 

the  dictionary,  supplementary  articles  of  books  and  maga- 
zines, and  collections  of  illustrative  material. 

A  standardized  outline  organization  of  material,  if  the 
material  has  been  written  with  problems  in  mind,  may  be 
used  to  good  advantage.  The  developed  problem  of  the 
book  may  contain  information  which  may  be  selected  and 
assembled  in  the  interpretation  of  a  problem.  Problem- 
solving  which  involves  the  use  of  sweeping  general- 
izations of  the  book  should  be  cautiously  undertaken. 
Undeveloped  generalizations  not  only  are  almost  meaning- 
less but,  in  addition,  tend  to  make  the  study  of  geography 
exceedingly  superficial.  The  pictures  of  the  textbook 
should  be  selected  with  a  well-defined  purpose  and  should 
be  accompanied  by  appropriate  explanations  and  ques- 
tions. The  maps  should  be  as  accurate  as  possible.  If 
a  city  is  located  on  a  railroad  or  on  a  water  route,  a  map 
that  represents  the  city  as  located  some  distance  from  the 
transportation  route  is  of  little  value  in  so  far  as  trans- 
portation relations  are  concerned.  If  variations  in  alti- 
tude are  significant  as  a  phase  of  a  problem,  there  should 
be  a  map  that  will  indicate  this  difference.  If  a  detailed 
study  of  a  small  area  is  to  be  made,  a  map  on  a  large 
scale  should  be  available.  Too  frequently  in  problem- 
solving  we  must  make  statements  which  a  pupil  must  read 
into  a  map;  many  of  these  statements  a  pupil  should  be 
able  to  read  from  a  map. 

In  elaborating  the  topics  of  a  textbook  or  in  connection 
with  problem  work,  it  is  frequently  desirable  to  permit 
some  student  to  make  a  special  report.  Preferably  these 
individual  contributions  should  be  raised  to  a  problem 


1 82  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

level.  Too  often  the  pupil  is  merely  a  transmitter  of  the 
printed  page,  whether  he  has  copied  the  contents  to  be 
read  to  the  class  or  whether  he  has  read  the  article  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  times  to  give  it  virtually  from  memory. 
If  the  special  report  is  raised  to  the  problem  level,  the 
pupil  secures  memory  impressions  of  the  article,  but,  in 
addition,  he  attempts  to  weigh  the  relative  importance  of 
the  topics,  to  eliminate  the  irrelevant  and  insignificant,  to 
consult  the  dictionary  for  proper  pronunciation  and 
definition  of  words,  and  to  clear  up  any  poorly  understood 
parts  by  referring  to  the  encyclopedia  or  other  books. 
He  similarly  studies  the  pictures  and  makes  a  sketch  map 
that  will  show  the  general  and  special  location.  After 
making  this  detailed  study  he  attempts  to  reorganize  the 
material  so  that  it  will  maximally  interest  and  instruct 
the  class.  Most  pupils  can  give  satisfactory  memory 
reports.  More  attention  should  be  devoted  to  problem 
reports  of  special  articles. 

Securing  problems.  The  scientific  geographer,  inter- 
ested in  making  a  thoroughgoing,  painstaking  study  of 
content,  may  incorporate  into  his  studies  many  problems 
that  relatively  are  insignificant.  From  this  great  field  of 
knowledge  both  the  geographer  and  the  educator  are  in- 
terested in  selecting  for  school  use  the  problems  of  great- 
est worth.  Equal  emphasis,  therefore,  will  not  be  placed 
on  all  the  geographic  factors  of  an  area,  but  each  area 
will  be  studied  in  relation  to  its  more  significant  problems. 

Problems  may  be  selected  that  will  account  for  past 
conditions;  as,  "Why  did  the  religion  of  the  Egyptians 
center  about  the  Nile?"  or,  "How  did  the  environment 
of   the   Phoenicians   influence   them  to   become  a   great 


THE  PROBLEM  METHOD  183 

maritime  power  ?  "  The  problems  may  attempt  to  account 
for  present  conditions;  as,  "Account  for  the  dominating 
influence  of  the  inland  city  of  Chicago,"  or,  "Account 
for  the  dominance  of  the  pampas  in  Argentina."  The 
problem  may  deal  with  future  possibilities;  as,  "Should 
the  United  States  intervene  to  force  Mexico  to  set  up  a 
stable  form  of  government?"  "Is  the  predicted  Yellow 
Peril  real  or  fancied?"  "What  may  be  the  practical  out- 
come of  the  apportioning  of  Africa  among  the  nations  ?  " 
and  "Will  the  more  important  future  development  of  the 
St.  Louis  industrial  area  probably  be  on  the  Illinois  or 
the  Missouri  side  of  the  Mississippi  River  ?  "  Our  present 
courses  of  study  ordinarily  provide  an  insufficient  amount 
of  problem-solving  of  the  latter  type.  Few  would  ques- 
tion the  value  of  making  a  study  of  how  the  geography 
of  the  past  and  present  helps  to  account  for  present-day 
realities,  but  there  is  increasing  need  that  our  schools 
shall  not  simply  follow  the  world's  progress  but  shall 
give  constructive  assistance  in  pointing  the  way  to  a 
better  day.  Geography  can  help  substantially  in  indicat- 
ing the  direction  in  which  future  development  should 
proceed. 

In  teaching  geography  through  problems  in  which 
geographic  factors  are  significant,  rather  than  through  a 
topical  outline,  the  teacher  may  well  hold  in  mind  an 
organized  outline  of  the  minimum  essentials  in  geography 
that  should  be  taught  with  reference  to  the  region  con- 
cerned. The  teacher  should  check  accomplishment  with 
reference  to  her  list  of  minimum  essentials,  and  she  should 
make  supplementary  provision  for  any  minimum  essen- 
tials that  are  omitted  in  the  problem  studies. 


1 84      THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

The  problem  may  be  expressed  in  a  variety  of  ways.  It 
may  be  (i)  a  question,  as,  "What  use  should  Poland 
make  of  her  resources  in  order  that  she  may  become  a 
strong  nation?"  (2)  a  debate,  as,  "Poland  has  a  better 
opportunity  than  Czechoslovakia  for  an  important  na- 
tional development";  (3)  a  suggested  scoring,  as,  "Pur- 
pose, to  find  whether  Poland  or  Czechoslovakia  has  the 
better  opportunity  for  an  important  national  develop- 
ment"; (4)  a  prejudicial  declarative  statement,  as,  "Why 
Poland  must  become  a  powerful  nation";  (5)  a  topical 
outline,  as,  "Poland,  location,  area,  topography,  climate, 
plant  and  animal  life,  and  human  activities,"  each  topic 
being  a  condensed  statement  of  a  problem,  as,  "How 
has  the  location  of  Poland  affected  its  development?" 
It  is  not  the  particular  form  of  a  problem  that  is  sig- 
nificant, it  is  the  existence  of  a  problem. 

The  pedagogy  oj  problem-solving.  The  trained  geog- 
rapher may  readily  pick  out  the  more  important  prob- 
lems in  geography.  If  the  child  is  merely  assigned 
problem  after  problem,  however,  and  told  that  he  must 
master  each  one,  the  teacher  is  following  the  old-fashioned 
practice  of  adapting  the  child  to  the  material.  The 
pedagogical  viewpoint  affirms  that  socially  valuable  prob- 
lems should  be  taught,  but  that  the  problem,  if  possible, 
should  make  an  appeal  to  the  child's  interests  and  experi- 
ences. If  a  mere  statement  of  the  problem  is  sufficient 
to  stimulate  the  child  to  attempt  its  solution  in  a  whole- 
hearted, purposeful  manner,  further  attempts  to  arouse 
interest  in  the  problem  would  be  superfluous.  Frequently, 
however,  it  is  desirable  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of  ma- 
terial which  will  recall  pertinent  experiences  and  which 


THE  PROBLEM  METHOD  185 

will  provide  initial  material  out  of  which  the  problem 
may  arise.  The  problem  may  be  stated  first,  and  then 
an  attempt  may  be  made  to  arouse  interest  in  it,  or  the 
problem  may  be  raised  out  of  the  introductory  material. 
While  there  is  no  set  formula  that  will  insure  success 
in  this  initial  step,  the  following  types  of  assignments  will 
be  found  suggestive  :  ( 1 )  Assignment :  For  the  next  reci- 
tation take  the  problem  uCan  Palestine  again  become  a 
land  *  flowing  with  milk  and  honey'?"  In  securing  ma- 
terial as  a  basis  for  your  conclusion  consult  your  textbook 
and  supplementary  material  on  the  shelf.  (2)  The  prob- 
lem may  be  assigned,  and  the  Bible  reference  concerning 
milk  and  honey  may  be  recalled,  the  former  productive- 
ness of  the  Holy  Land  may  be  discussed,  and  the 
Zionist  movement  to  Palestine  may  be  noted.  The  prob- 
lem may  become  meaningful  as  a  result  of  this  discussion. 

(3)  The  discussion  concerning  the  former  productiveness 
of  the  Holy  Land  etc.  may  lead  naturally  to  the  problem, 
so  that  the  problem  arises  out  of  the  introductory  material. 

(4)  The  pupils  in  their  out-of-school  experiences  may 
hear  about  or  read  about  the  Zionist  movement  and  the 
attempts  that  are  to  be  made  to  restore  Palestine  to  its 
former  productivity,  and  the  teacher  may  utilize  the 
interests  and  experiences  that  they  bring  to  school  by 
helping  them  to  interpret  the  problem  as  to  whether  the 
hopes  of  the  Zionists  are  well  founded.  There  is  no  in- 
fallible rule.  The  wise  teacher  may  occasionally  use  every 
type  of  assignment  indicated.  The  responsibility  of  get- 
ting the  problem  before  the  child  in  such  a  way  that  it 
appeals  to  him  and  arouses  his  enthusiasm  belongs  to 
the  teacher. 


1 86  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

In  the  interpretation  of  a  problem  there  are  all  grada- 
tions, from  the  detailed  working  out  of  the  problem  by 
the  teacher — the  pupils  merely  following  the  interpreta- 
tion more  or  less  thoughtfully — to  the  independent  in- 
terpretation of  the  problem  with  absolutely  no  assistance 
from  the  teacher.  The  degree  of  assistance  that  is  given 
will  depend  on  the  difficulty  of  the  problem  on  the  one 
hand,  and  on  the  capacity  and  ability  of  the  pupil  on  the 
other  hand.  Suggestions  concerning  various  ways  of 
assisting  can  be  given,  but  the  trained  teacher  must  con- 
stantly diagnose  the  situation  and  direct  her  course  ac- 
cordingly. In  the  securing  of  materials,  such  as  maps, 
globes,  pictures,  textbook  articles,  statistics,  samples  of 
products,  newspaper  and  magazine  articles,  etc.,  the 
pupils  should  be  aided  by  a  reasonable  accumulation  that 
can  readily  be  secured,  although  they  should  always 
be  encouraged  to  supplement  the  school  materials  with 
contributions  from  the  home,  the  library,  and  miscellane- 
ous sources. 

In  most  cases  it  is  better  to  induce  a  pupil  to  stay  with 
a  problem  until  the  interpretation  has  been  made.  It  may 
be  helpful  at  the  outset  to  give  the  pupil  an  overview  of 
the  problem  and  the  nature  of  the  study  that  will  be  neces- 
sary, in  order  that  he  may  have  a  reasonably  adequate 
conception  of  the  task  that  is  before  him.  If  a  pupil 
undertakes  the  solution  of  a  problem  that  he  abandons 
because  he  tires  of  it,  bad  habits  and  attitudes  may  be 
formed.  It  is  not  always  necessary  that  the  pupil  shall 
come  to  a  final  conclusion,  but  as  a  final  step  the  solution 
of  the  problem  should  be  indicated  in  concise  form  or 
the  materials  interpreted  should  be  summarized.    If  it  is 


THE  PROBLEM  METHOD  187 

probable  that  other  factors  than  those  discussed  should 
enter  into  the  problem,  the  pupil  should  indicate  that, 
with  respect  to  the  factors  studied,  certain  conclusions 
have  been  reached.  Pupils  should  not  be  permitted  to  feel 
that  they  have  made  an  exhaustive  final  study  of  a  prob- 
lem, when  necessarily,  in  most  instances,  they  have  studied 
only  the  more  significant  or  more  accessible  factors. 

If  a  conclusion  is  reached,  what  use  can  be  made  of  it? 
If  the  problem  refers  to  the  reasons  for  a  past  or  a  present 
condition,  the  instinctive  desire  of  the  child  to  understand 
has  been  satisfied.  He  has  secured  a  viewpoint  and  in- 
formation that  potentially  will  be  a  fundamental  back- 
ground in  helping  him  to  solve  the  living  problems  of  the 
world.  If  the  problem  deals  with  an  economic  and  social 
policy  that  is  being  pursued,  or  that  may  be  pursued,  with 
the  view  of  determining  the  best  policy,  the  pupil  is  not 
only  satisfying  an  instinctive  desire  to  master  the  problem 
but  has  also  come  to  a  conclusion  that  may  result  in 
practical  accomplishment. 

Practical  difficulties  in  the  use  of  the  problem  method. 
It  has  been  very  difficult  for  many  teachers  to  get  away 
from  the  topical  outline.  An  examination  of  various 
courses  of  study  developed  from  the  problem  standpoint 
indicates  that  the  oid  detailed  topical  outline  of  a  country 
has  been  retained  and  that  the  outline  has  simply  been 
capped  with  a  problem,  ordinarily  in  the  form  of  a  ques- 
tion. The  topical  method,  in  other  words,  has  been  sugar- 
coated  with  a  problem  in  an  attempt  to  make  it  more 
palatable.  Much  confusion  arises,  for  many  of  the  details 
of  the  outline  can  be  applied  to  the  problem  only  by 
the  wildest  stretches  of  the  imagination.    Because  of  this 


1 88  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

distant  relation  of  material,  the  pupil  and  possibly  the 
teacher  lose  sight  of  the  problem  and  proceed  to  master 
the  material  by  the  topical  method. 

The  reason  for  this  misuse  of  problems  can  be  readily 
understood.  The  topical  outline  presents,  with  but  little 
overlapping,  the  detailed  content  of  the  region.  If  a  prob- 
lem can  be  secured  that  will  require  the  use  of  the  various 
topics  in  the  outline,  the  material  can  be  taken  up  sys- 
tematically and  without  serious  overlapping.  The  teacher 
needs  to  secure  real  problems  that  will  involve  the  neces- 
sary content  of  the  topical  organization.  Frequently  this 
can  be  done  by  the  consideration  of  a  number  of  problems 
dealing  with  the  area,  the  resulting  overlapping  of  con- 
tent being  regarded  as  a  desirable  form  of  review.  The 
problem  method  is  of  little  or  no  value  if  the  topical  out- 
line is  forced  into  the  problem  mold.  Each  problem,  irre- 
spective of  the  topical  outline,  should  be  solved  according 
to  its  own  requirements. 

The  problem  method  may  be  overworked.  As  has  been 
indicated,  much  human  development  proceeds  more  or 
less  haphazardly,  more  or  less  accidentally,  through  obser- 
vations and  impressions.  The  problem  method  seeks  to 
substitute  scientific  advancement  for  accidental  advance- 
ment. Not  only  does  memory  work  meet  individual  needs, 
however,  but  it  also  furnishes  much  of  the  raw  material 
for  problem-solving.  The  human  being  is  so  constituted 
that  it  may  tire  of  problem  work,  but  may  find  relaxation 
in  falling  back  on  instincts,  habits,  impressions,  and  recall. 
True  problem-solving,  being  the  most  intensely  intellec- 
tualized  form  of  action,  is  the  most  exacting  work  that 
an  individual  can  experience. 


THE  PROBLEM  METHOD  189 

The  problem  may  not  be  adapted  to  the  child.  Merely- 
telling  the  child  that  he  has  a  problem  to  solve  does  not 
make  it  so.  The  pupil  must  be  led  to  see  the  problem  in- 
volved. The  problem  should  be  related  to  his  interests 
and  experiences.  It  is  not  sufficient  that  the  problem  shall 
be  worth  while  from  the  teacher's  standpoint ;  it  must  also 
be  worth  while  from  the  pupil's  standpoint.  The  technic 
of  the  teacher  is  tested  as  she  attempts  to  get  the  pupil 
enthusiastically  and  purposefully  interested  in  a  problem 
which  she  believes  he  should  interpret  as  a  part  of  his 
educational  development. 

Appropriate  materials  for  the  solution  of  the  problem 
may  not  be  available.  This  difficulty  is  gradually  dis- 
appearing. Better  textbooks  are  being  published,  special 
studies  are  being  made,  better  maps  and  maps  in  greater 
variety  are  being  published,  the  homes  are  using  more 
reading  material,  and  public  libraries  are  becoming 
increasingly  numerous.  Under  modern  conditions  no 
teacher  should  excuse  herself  from  problem  work  with 
the  explanation  that  she  has  inadequate  equipment  for 
this  type  of  work. 


EXAMPLE    OF    A    PROBLEM 

i.  Preparatory  step:  In  a  large  city  an  investigation  by 
federal  representatives  indicated  that  the  milk  supply  was 
dangerous  to  health,  and  the  people  using  the  milk  believed 
that  the  price  charged  was  exorbitant.  There  was  free  discus- 
sion, therefore,  among  the  people  concerning  the  high  price  of 
unsatisfactory  milk.  The  children,  as  ultimate  consumers, 
were  well  acquainted  with  milk  and  its  uses,  and  they  became 
interested   in    the  public   agitation.    In   a  life   situation   with 


190  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

which  the  children  had  adequate  points  of  contact  arose  condi- 
tions favorable  for  a  problem  interpretation. 

2.  Problem  raised  and  concisely  stated:  The  teacher  eagerly- 
grasped  the  opportunity  presented  through  the  interest  of  the 
children  in  the  situation,  and  out  of  their  questions  arose  the 
problem,  which  was  stated  by  different  pupils,  and  the  final 
form  agreed  upon  by  the  class  as  follows :  "Is  it  true  that  our 
milk  supply  is  dangerous  and  that  exorbitant  prices  are  being 
charged  by  the  dairy  companies  ?  "  It  will  be  seen  that  in  real- 
ity there  were  two  distinct  but  overlapping  problems  involved. 

3.  Materials  secured  and  interpreted:  Each  problem  was 
considered  separately.  The  condition  of  the  milk  supply  in- 
volved a  consideration  of  the  significance  of  having  dairy 
cattle  free  from  disease,  of  observing  the  utmost  cleanliness  in 
milking  the  cows,  in  caring  for  the  milk  at  all  times  until  it 
had  reached  the  consumer,  of  maintaining  a  sufficiently  low 
temperature  to  maintain  the  desirable  qualities  of  the  milk, 
and  of  pasteurizing  all  milk  coming  into  the  city.  The  condi- 
tions as  they  ought  to  have  been  were  contrasted  with  the 
conditions  that  actually  existed,  and  the  pupils  had  definite 
data  on  which  to  base  their  conclusions. 

4.  Problem  solved:  The  pupils,  as  a  result  of  their  study, 
were  convinced  in  most  instances  that  the  milk  supply  was 
unsafe. 

5.  Application :  Many  of  the  problems  that  have  been  used 
in  geography  classes  cannot  be  immediately  used  in  some  posi- 
tive, useful  way.  In  this  instance  the  conclusions  reached  by 
the  students  were  used  in  enlightening  other  members  of  the 
family,  and  the  pupils  undoubtedly  had  a  helpful  influence  in 
creating  sufficient  public  sentiment  to  bring  about  a  partial 
correction  of  the  evil. 

The  second  problem  involved  a  study  of  the  cost  fac- 
tors entering  into  the  production,  transportation,  and 
pasteurization  of  milk,  and  its  distribution  to  the  ultimate 


THE  PROBLEM  METHOD  191 

consumer.  The  first  problem  had  made  the  pupils  aware 
of  the  importance  of  a  desirable  milk  supply,  and  conse- 
quently they  were  eager  to  have  any  reasonable  expendi- 
tures made  to  guard  the  health  of  the  community. 

The  type  problem  suggested  has  been  analyzed  into  its 
respective  parts  in  order  that  the  nature  of  a  problem 
may  be  more  clearly  indicated.  In  actual  practice  these 
steps  should  be  carefully  interlocked,  so  that  no  step  will 
be  painfully  evident.  The  teacher  is  not  primarily  inter- 
ested in  the  realization  of  each  step  as  a  distinct  accom- 
plishment, but  in  the  step  as  a  vital  part  of  a  larger  whole, 
the  problem  unit. 

Suggestions  for  Further  Study : 

1.  Should  all  the  work  of  the  school  be  on  the  problem  level? 

2.  What  is  the  relation  of  a  good  memory  to  problem-solving? 

3.  Prepare  a  special  report  in  geography  and  attempt  to  raise  it 
to  a  problem  level. 

4.  Select  a  problem  and  state  it  in  as  many  different  ways  as 
possible. 

5.  Select  a  problem  and  work  it  out  in  detail  with  respect  to 
the  five  steps  indicated. 

6.  What  are  the  factors  that  may  cause  a  teacher  to  fail  in 
teaching  by  the  problem  method  ?  What  are  the  factors  that  favor 
successful  teaching  through  the  problem  method? 

Selected  References : 

Braxom.  M.  E.  The  Project  Method  in  Education,  chap.  x. 
pp.  145-171. 

Brown.  R.  M.  "  Problem-Study  Procedure  in  Geography  :  Africa." 
Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  XVII,  pp.  276-280. 

Charters.  1.  A.  "The  Problem  Method  of  Teaching  Ideals."  Eng- 
lish Journal  (1919).  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  461-473. 


192  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Cook,  Charles  W.  "  Importance  of  Geographic  Factors  in  the 
Birmingham,  Alabama,  Iron  District,"  Journal  of  Geog7~aphy 
(1918),  Vol.  XVI,  pp.   180-184. 

Freeland,  George  E.  Modern  Elementary-School  Practice,  chap, 
ii,  pp.  6-44. 

Lackey,  Earl  E.    Studies  in  the  Principles  of  Geography,  p.  116. 

McMurry,  Charles  A.  and  Frank  M.  Method  of  the  Recita- 
tion, chap,  x,  pp.   257-270. 

Minor,  Ruby.  "Problem  Teaching:  How  to  Plan  for  it,"  Journal 
of  Geography  (1920),  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  61-69. 

Parker,  Edith  P.  "  Partition  of  Africa  —  A  Seventh-Grade  Geog- 
raphy Unit,"  Elementary  School  Journal  (1919),  Vol.  XX, 
pp.     188-202;    Journal    of   Geography    (1919),    Vol.    XVIII, 

PP-  359-364- 

Parker.  Samuel  Chester.  "  Problem-Solving,  or,  Practice  in 
Thinking,"  Elementary  School  Journal  (Sept.,  Oct.,  Nov.,  1920). 

Sutherland,  William.  "Improvement  in  Geography  Teaching," 
Joimial  of  Geography  (19 10),  Vol.  IX,  pp.  99-101. 

Sutherland.  William.  The  Teaching  of  Geography,  chap,  ii, 
pp.   145-155;   chap,  xii,  pp.  155-160;  chap,  xiv,  pp.   166-172. 

Visher,  S.  S.  "  Some  Results  of  the  Location  of  Australia,"  Jour- 
nal of  Geography  (igiS),  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  305-309. 

"  Minneapolis  Outline  for  Teaching  Japan  and  China,"  Journal  of 
Geography  (1918),  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  228-233. 


CHAPTER   XIV 
THE  ARGUMENTATIVE  LESSON 

A  special  type  of  problem.  In  the  competitive  life  of 
the  world  it  is  necessary  that  a  person  shall  be  able  to 
marshal  the  facts  concerning  a  situation  and  to  come  to  a 
desirable  conclusion.  He  should  be  able  effectively  to  de- 
fend and  justify  any  stand  that  he  may  have  taken.  He 
should  be  able  to  do  this  quickly,  accurately,  and  con- 
vincingly. Since  there  is  practically  no  situation  in  life 
that  is  devoid  of  its  geographic  aspect,  every  pupil  should 
have  training  in  the  proper  evaluation  of  the  physical  fac- 
tors. There  are  two  special  types  of  problems  requiring 
the  individual  to  adopt  a  particular  conclusion  in  con- 
trast to  one  or  more  other  conclusions  that  might  be 
reached.  In  a  scoring  lesson  the  pupil  lists  the  advantages 
and  disadvantages  with  respect  to  two  or  more  possible 
conclusions,  and  through  a  pitting  of  the  advantages  on 
the  one  side  against  the  advantages  on  the  other  side  at- 
tempts to  come  to  a  rational  conclusion.  Scoring  is  a  type 
of  debate  in  which  the  affirmative  and  the  negative  are 
represented  by  the  same  person. 

Scoring.  Countries,  cities,  mountains,  rivers,  products, 
and  groups  of  people  may  be  compared.  The  comparative 
method  is  all  the  more  effective  if  the  comparisons  are 
made  with  the  view  of  coming  intelligently  and  impartially 
to  a  well-defined  conclusion.    The  various  points  to  be 


194  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

noted  in  comparing  two  countries  may  be  listed,  and  each 
point  may  be  given  a  definite  value,  the  sum  of  all  the 
values  to  be  ioo  or  any  other  desired  sum.  The  coun- 
tries may  then  be  scored  point  by  point.  If  the  country 
has  been  given  a  perfect  score,  the  sum  of  the  points 
should  be  ioo.  No  geographic  topic,  probably,  would  be 
given  a  score  of  ioo  per  cent,  but  the  country  register- 
ing the  highest  per  cent  would  be  considered  the  superior 
country. 

A  simple  method  of  scoring  is  indicated  in  the  follow- 
ing illustration  and  in  the  table  on  the  opposite  page : 

Problem  :  To  determine  whether  Uruguay  or  Paraguay 
•mill  make  the  most  rapid  advancement. 

Books  consulted  :    Textbooks  and  supplementary  readers. 

If  the  factor  was  favorable  in  each  country  and  no 
superiority  could  be  determined,  each  country  was  given 
a  point.  If  the  factor  was  unfavorable  in  each  country, 
each  country  was  given  no  score.  The  data  unfortunately 
are  not  always  readily  secured,  and  too  much  of  the  ma- 
terial available  makes  sweeping  generalizations  which  it  is 
difficult  to  verify.  In  spite  of  these  difficulties  practice  in 
scoring  based  on  the  data  available  is  worth  while  because 
of  the  careful  evaluation,  discrimination,  and  recognition 
of  shortcomings  involved. 

The  class  may  agree  on  the  topics  that  will  be  con- 
sidered in  the  scoring.  Each  pupil  may  score  independ- 
ently. The  class  recitation  may  be  devoted  to  an  exchange 
of  opinion  concerning  the  scoring  of  the  countries.  Pupils 
should  be  able  to  back  up  their  conclusions  with  exact 
references.    The  particular  advantage  of  scoring  lies  in 


THE  ARGUMENTATIVE  LESSON 


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1 96  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

the  fact  that  the  students  are  attempting  presumably  to 
arrive  at  an  absolutely  impartial  conclusion.  They  are 
not  seeking  to  determine  that  one  side  or  the  other  is 
superior,  but  are  merely  seeking  to  determine  the  actual 
situation.  This  type  of  work,  if  carefully  done,  helps  to 
overcome  the  tendency  to  accept  conclusions  prejudicially 
and  then  to  distort  the  facts  in  order  to  sustain  the  view- 
point adopted. 

Debating.  The  debate  tends  to  accomplish  for  a  group 
what  the  scoring  accomplishes  for  an  individual.  The 
debate  calls  for  a  more  highly  socialized  organization. 
Not  only  are  the  students  engaged  in  comparing  materials 
but  their  ability  is  being  matched  with  that  of  other  stu- 
dents. An  individual  needs  to  learn  how  to  weigh  the 
evidence  carefully  and  to  come  to  a  desirable  conclusion. 
A  considerable  part  of  his  success,  however,  depends  upon 
the  influence  that  he  can  wield  in  causing  others  to  accept 
his  views. 

The  need  of  making  the  same  careful  study  as  in  the 
scoring  method  is  present,  but  the  study  is  made  with  a 
somewhat  different  aim  in  view.  The  pupil  is  interested 
in  proving  his  side  of  the  argument.  He  is  interested  in 
the  psychology  of  the  situation  as  well  as  the  bare  facts. 
He  will  appeal  to  both  the  head  and  the  heart.  He  will 
emphasize  those  factors  that  put  his  side  in  a  favorable 
light,  and  he  will  seek  to  minimize  the  advantages  of  the 
opposition. 

Pupils  should  agree  upon  the  subject  to  be  debated, 
and  they  should  also  agree  upon  its  phraseology.  The 
subject  for  debate  may  originate  in  a  difference  of  opinion 


THE  ARGUMENTATIVE  LESSON  197 

in  the  regular  class  work.  Pupils  may  take  sides  accord- 
ing to  their  opinions.  As  a  result  of  the  differences  the 
questions  may  be  clearly  stated,  the  study  hour  may  be 
devoted  to  the  securing  of  pertinent  material,  and  pupils 
may  return  with  facts  to  strengthen  the  stand  they  have 
taken.  If  the  pupils  return  to  the  classroom  in  perfect 
agreement,  the  detailed  study  has  been  the  means  of  clear- 
ing up  the  difficulties,  and  the  reason  for  the  debate  has 
been  removed.  If  the  class  on  reassembling  is  still  divided, 
the  two  groups  may  proceed  to  present  the  evidence.  The 
leader,  the  teacher,  or  a  pupil  may  act  as  chairman,  and 
representatives  of  the  two  sides  may  be  allowed  to  talk 
alternately.  A  time  limit  to  each  speech  may  or  may  not 
be  desirable.  The  chairman  will  attempt  to  secure  a  gen- 
eral participation.  The  class  may  vote  on  the  outcome 
either  publicly  or  by  ballot,  the  latter  method  ordinarily 
being  preferable,  or  a  committee  from  another  room  may 
be  selected  to  judge. 

Through  the  debate  the  pupil  learns  that  there  is  some- 
thing of  greater  value  than  being  an  ^ace"  in  this  world. 
He  learns  to  sacrifice  himself,  if  necessary,  for  the  welfare 
of  the  group  with  which  he  is  working.  The  work  must 
be  distributed  among  the  members  of  a  team  so  as  coordi- 
nate^ to  bring  about  the  most  effective  results. 

Debates,  in  general,  should  center  about  an  honest  dif- 
ference of  opinion.  It  is  not  desirable  to  encourage  pupils 
to  take  the  opposite  side  merely  for  the  sake  of  arguing. 
This  teaches  pupils  to  be  dishonest  with  themselves.  There 
are  enough  geographic  problems  over  which  pupils  may 
honestly   disagree   without   the   setting   up   of    artificial 


198  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

problems  for  debate.  Unless  a  pupil  thoroughly  believes 
in  his  side  his  work  cannot  be  thoroughly  and  desirably 
motivated. 

Students  should  be  encouraged  to  make  honest  state- 
ments. Children  may  be  so  carried  away  by  their  enthu- 
siasm to  win  that  they,  as  unfortunately  is  true  of  many 
adults,  are  willing  to  resort  to  misrepresentation  to  secure 
the  desired  victory.  By  holding  a  debater  to  exact  refer- 
ences the  tendency  to  make  sweeping  statements  can  be 
held  in  check.  The  well-conducted  debate  brings  vividly 
before  the  pupils  the  reasons  for  differences  of  opinion  and 
tends  to  make  them,  while  disagreeing,  tolerant  of  each 
other's  views. 

The  subject  for  debate  may  involve  a  geographic  prob- 
lem approached  from  the  physical  viewpoint;  as,  "The 
unfavorable  climate  of  the  Amazon  basin  makes  it 
highly  improbable  that  this  basin  will  ever  be  as  densely 
populated  as  the  United  States."  The  subject  may  be 
approached  from  the  life  standpoint;  as,  "The  people  of 
the  southern  part  of  the  United  States  are  less  progressive 
than  those  of  the  northern  part  on  account  of  climatic  dif- 
ferences." The  subject  may  be  of  a  social  or  political 
nature,  with  the  possibilities  of  a  very  important  physical 
interpretation;  as,  "A  stable,  progressive  government 
cannot  be  established  in  tropical  countries  without  assist- 
ance from  temperate  regions." 

The  subject  for  debate  may  involve  events  that  have 
passed  ;  as.  "The  discovery  of  the  south  pole  was  fraught 
with  more  clangers  than  the  discovery  of  the  north  pole." 
The  subject  may  involve  an  interpretation  of  a  present 
situation;    as,    "The   physical   factors  have   been   more 


THE  ARGUMENTATIVE  LESSON  199 

important  than  the  social  factors  in  bringing  about  the 
unsatisfactory  political  condition  in  Mexico."  The  sub- 
ject may  involve  a  consideration  of  future  possibilities ; 
as,  "The  forested  area  of  southern  Chile  within  fifty  years 
will  be  more  important  to  Chile  than  the  desert  region  of 
the  north." 

The  argumentative  lesson  involves  a  special  type  of 
problem.  The  subject  for  debate  should  be  motivated, 
arising  out  of  the  discussions  of  other  problems  and  topics 
or  arising  out  of  an  initial  situation.  If  difference  in  opin- 
ion exists,  conditions  may  be  favorable  for  the  holding  of 
a  formal  debate.  In  some  instances  an  informal  debate  or 
argument  may  be  sufficient.  The  debate  presents  a  social 
challenge  to  the  participants  that  sometimes  makes  a 
stronger  appeal  than  the  solution  of  the  problem.  The 
debate  offers  an  excellent  opportunity  not  only  of  securing 
intense  mental  activity  in  marshaling  evidence  but  also 
of  giving  training  in  cooperative  living  in  a  representative 
democracy  with  its  divergent  opinions. 

Suggestions  for  Further  Study : 

1.  Make  a  list  of  criteria  by  means  of  which  you  think  that  cities 
should  be  scored.  Select  two  cities,  and  through  scoring  seek  to 
determine  which  has  the  better  future. 

2.  Select  a  geographic  subject  that  you  consider  excellent  for  a 
debate  and  give  reasons  for  your  selection. 

3.  Select  a  geographic  topic  that  you  do  not  consider  suitable 
for  a  debate  and  give  reasons  for  your  selection. 

4.  I?  the  debate  or  the  score  the  more  valuable  type  of  argu- 
mentative lesson  ? 

5.  Describe  a  geographic  debate  in  which  all  the  factors  are  as 
nearly  ideal  as  possible. 


200  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

6.  Select  two  of  the  new  countries  of  Europe,  and  by  the  score 
card  seek  to  determine  which  has  the  better  opportunity  for  an 
important  national  development. 

7.  Consult  a  rhetoric  for  a  detailed  analysis  of  the  parts  of  a 
debate. 

8.  What  are  the  limitations  of  the  argumentative  lesson  in  the 
teaching  of  geography  ? 

Selected  References : 

Foster,   William    Hortox.     Debating    for   Boys.     Sturgis   and 

Walton   Co..   New  York,    191 5. 
Huxtixgtox,  Ellsworth,  and  Cushing,  Sumner  W.    Principles 

of  Human  Ceography  (1921),   chap,  iv,   pp.  78-101  ;    chap,  xvi, 

pp.  309-318. 
McCoxxell,  W.  R.   "  Geography  and  the  Irish  Question,"  Journal 

of  Geography,  Vol.  XVIII,  pp.  259-267. 
Richards,  E.  B.    "The  Game  of  Debate,"  English  Journal  (1920), 

Vol.  IX,  pp.  147-152. 


CHAPTER    XV 
THE  TOPICAL  OUTLINE 

Nature  of  the  topical  outline.  The  various  subjects 
recognized  in  a  curriculum  may  be  regarded  as  the  large 
topics  with  which  the  school  deals.  In  organizing  each 
subject  it  has  been  convenient  to  have  some  systematic 
topical  arrangement  of  the  material,  while  frequently  a 
more  detailed  consideration  of  one  of  the  numerous  sub- 
divisions of  a  subject  has  involved  still  more  topics.  A 
topic  is  a  content  nucleus  about  which  the  subject  matter 
may  be  arranged  in  an  orderly,  coherent,  and  compre- 
hensive manner. 

The  scientific  organization  of  materials  is  desirable 
from  the  standpoint  of  insuring  that  the  social  inheritance 
shall  be  preserved  in  its  entirety.  The  topical  outline  in- 
sures the  organization  of  this  knowledge  in  detail  and  with 
a  minimum  of  duplication.  The  systematic,  topical  organ- 
ization of  content  presents  a  definite  body  of  material. 
One  subtopic  after  another  can  be  taken  up,  discussed, 
and  definitely  disposed  of.  When  the  material  is  once 
scientifically  organized,  successive  classes  will  be  able  to 
use  the  same  organization,  and  the  work  is  reduced  to  a 
system. 

With  the  improvement  in  the  technic  of  teaching  has 
come  a  careful  scrutiny  of  the  topical  outline,  not  only  as 
a  basis  for  the  organization  of  content  but  as  a  means 


202  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

for  economically  giving  the  child  that  development  as 
a  social  being  which  he  ought  to  have. 

A  topical  outline  may  be  applicable  to  one  large  topic, 
or  it  may  be  sufficiently  general  to  be  applied  to  any 
one  of  a  number  in  the  same  class.  If  an  outline  is  stand- 
ardized so  that  it  can  be  applied  to  numerous  topics  of  the 
same  class,  a  mode  of  attack  may  be  worked  out  that 
will  simplify  the  mastery  of  a  topic.  An  outline  may  be 
evolved  that  can  be  applied  to  any  agricultural  product, 
to  any  mineral  product,  or  to  any  animal  product ;  that 
can  be  applied  to  any  geographic  or  political  unit;  that 
can  be  applied  to  any  type  group  of  people ;  that  can  be 
applied  to  any  city.  Outlines  are  helpful  in  the  classifica- 
tion of  knowledge  and  also  as  a  working  basis  for  the 
securing  of  knowledge. 

The  topical  outline  in  geography.  The  generalized 
topical  organization  has  been  worked  out  effectively  in 
geography  in  a  consideration  of  political  and  geographic 
units.  While  the  outline  may  vary  somewhat,  it  ordinarily 
includes  location,  area,  topography,  climate,  life  forms, 
human  activities,  and  distribution  of  population.  All  the 
topics  listed  are  fundamental  in  the  consideration  of  any 
areal  unit.  A  common  method  is  to  place  in  the  hands  of 
the  pupil  an  outline  for  his  general  guidance.  The  pupil 
may  desire  the  outline  as  a  basis  for  work.  Imitation 
without  appropriate  analysis,  however,  is  undesirable. 

The  child  should  have  training  in  the  organization  and 
classification  of  content  through  the  topical  outline.  Peda- 
gogically  it  makes  a  difference  how  the  outline  is  evolved. 
An  objection  raised  to  the  use  of  the  outline  has  been  the 
formalizing  of  procedure   through  the   dictation  of  the 


THE  TOPICAL  OUTLINE  203 

teacher.  There  are  at  least  four  ways  that  an  outline  may 
be  evolved :  ( 1 )  the  outline  may  be  given  the  child,  who 
may  be  forced  to  conform  to  it ;  (2)  the  outline  may  be 
presented  and  analyzed  by  the  teacher  in  an  attempt  to 
get  the  pupils  to  see  its  value  ;  (3)  the  outline  may  be  pre- 
sented, and  the  pupils,  with  the  help  of  the  teacher,  may 
analyze,  evaluate,  improve,  and  use  it;  (4)  the  pupils 
may  consider  any  part  of  the  larger  unit  that  appeals, 
finally  reorganizing  the  details  of  the  discussion,  thus  pro- 
ceeding toward  rather  than  from  an  outline  organization. 
In  (1)  the  external  organization  is  the  dominant  aspect; 
from  (1)  to  (4)  the  emphasis  is  shifted  increasingly 
from  the  subject  matter  and  its  organization  to  the  child 
and  his  mental  processes.  It  is  significant  educationally 
hoiv  results  are  secured. 

Illustrations.  An  excellent  way  to  handle  a  topical 
outline  so  that  the  needed  interest  may  be  secured  is 
to  select  a  subject  sufficiently  comprehensive  for  almost 
everyone  to  find  some  topic  within  his  interests.  The 
skill  of  the  teacher  is  shown  in  the  selection  of  the  unit. 
Argentina  may  be  suitable,  or  with  some  classes  it  may  be 
desirable  to  select  a  more  comprehensive  unit,  as  South 
America.  With  one  class  the  teacher  entered  into  a  brief 
discussion  of  Argentina  with  the  purpose  of  giving  the 
children  a  friendly  interest  in  the  country.  She  had 
placed  on  the  shelves  the  regular  books  of  the  library 
dealing  with  South  America  and  its  parts  and  had  supple- 
mented this  list  with  books  and  magazines  from  the 
library.  The  children  were  permitted  to  read  and  study 
anything  that  they  cared  to,  with  the  one  limitation — the 
material  should  concern  Argentina.    The  pupils  selected 


204  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

and  studied  articles.  During  the  class  period  contribu- 
tions were  made  by  different  members  of  the  class,  and 
discussions  followed.  As  the  topics  were  discussed  they 
were  listed  on  the  board.  Questions  that  could  not  be 
answered  stimulated  pupils  to  further  study.  Fresh  prep- 
aration, either  dealing  with  a  topic  previously  studied  or 
with  a  different  topic,  was  required  before  each  recitation. 
Gradually  the  number  of  topics  increased,  and  the  neces- 
sary details  were  supplied.  After  some  days  the  time 
seemed  ripe  for  the  next  step.  The  topics  had  been 
supplied  in  any  order,  and  additional  contributions  or 
corrections  had  been  accepted.  Not  even  in  the  final  re- 
organization of  the  topics  did  the  teacher  impose  what 
she  considered  the  best  organization  upon  the  class.  She 
raised  the  question  concerning  the  order  in  which  the 
topics  had  been  discussed,  and  the  class  entered  into  a 
lively  discussion.  Through  the  combined  efforts  of  the 
class  a  final  outline  topical  organization  of  material  was 
effected.  The  pupils  had  worked  to  a  topical  organiza- 
tion as  the  last  step  in  the  study  of  the  country,  Argentina, 
and  had  arranged  the  material  out  of  their  experience. 
The  country  of  Chile  was  similarly  studied.  While  the  de- 
tails varied,  there  were  in  each  case  certain  general  topics 
that  stood  out  in  relation  to  each  country,  particularly 
location,  area,  topography,  climate,  life  forms,  and  human 
activities.  The  pupils  compared  the  two  topical  outlines 
and  derived  therefrom  an  outline  that  could  be  applied  to 
either  country.  They  then  used  the  outline  in  the  study 
of  Brazil  and  other  areal  units.  The  topical  outline  thus 
secured  was  practically  the  same  that  ordinarily  is  given 


THE  TOPICAL  OUTLINE  205 

to  a  class  by  the  teacher.  As  the  pupils  worked  upon  the 
details  they  had  felt  the  need  of  guiding  principles  in  the 
selection  and  study  of  materials,  and  had  met  this  need  by 
effecting  a  topical  outline  from  the  two  countries  studied 
so  that  in  the  study  of  other  countries  the  result  should  be 
an  economy  of  time  and  systematically  planned  purpose- 
fulness  of  effort.  They  appreciated  the  help  of  the  outline 
and  used  it  much  more  enthusiastically  and  effectively 
than  if  they  had  merely  followed  the  directions  of  another. 
Pupils  learn  through  experience  what  to  look  for  in  the 
study  of  a  country,  and  the  objective  outline  becomes 
merely  an  organized  indication  of  their  habitual  atti- 
tudes that  they  tend  to  adopt  toward  a  country  to  be 
studied. 

The  study  of  topics  in  relation.  The  topical  outline, 
once  adopted,  should  be  used  effectively.  If  a  class  is 
merely  told  to  find  out  as  much  about  the  climate  of 
Chile  as  possible,  even  though  it  may  appreciate  the  rea- 
son for  the  outline,  there  is  no  assurance  that  such  a  topic 
will  make  a  strong  appeal  or  result  in  the  gain  of  valuable 
knowledge.  The  topical  outline  was  formerly  much 
abused  by  the  study  of  the  topics  in  relative  isolation.  In 
a  consideration  of  climate  little  or  no  attempt  was  made 
to  establish  controls  of  climate  on  man's  activities.  If 
climate  were  considered  it  was  primarily  descriptive  rather 
than  causal  discussion.  The  viewpoint  in  geography 
should  be  the  significance  of  the  physical  environment  to 
man,  and  in  the  consideration  of  every  topic  of  an  outline 
this  viewpoint  should  constantly  dominate.  The  adjust- 
ment of  man  to  his  social  and  physical  environment  is  a 


206  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

problem  of  perpetual  interest  and  value.  If  geographic 
relationships  adapted  to  the  child  are  emphasized,  the 
work  may  be  made  exceedingly  appealing. 

If  relationships  and  their  interpretations  are  empha- 
sized, the  topical  outline  may  involve  much  reflective 
thinking  as  well  as  questions  of  mere  fact.  Each  topic 
becomes  a  nucleus  about  which  numerous  problems  clus- 
ter. Properly  handled,  the  topics  become  condensed  prob- 
lems. The  outline  concerning  Argentina — location,  area, 
topography,  climate,  and  life  forms — might  mean  to  the 
person  with  the  proper  viewpoint,  What  effect  has  the 
location  of  Argentina  had  upon  its  development?  and 
similar  problems  might  be  presented  for  each  of  the  topics. 
The  outline  may  become  formalized  under  such  condi- 
tions, but  the  work  need  not  and  should  not,  inasmuch  as 
the  details  of  interpretation  depend  upon  the  particular 
importance  of  these  factors  in  dealing  with  a  certain 
country. 

Danger  of  generalizations.  Topical  work  may  be  of 
little  value  if  generalized  statements  are  permitted  with- 
out the  appropriate  details.  In  agricultural  production 
the  factors  of  special  significance  are  temperature,  rain- 
fall, soils,  and  topography.  These  topics  may  be  included 
as  a  part  of  the  topical  outline.  The  pupil  may  say  that 
coffee  is  produced  in  Brazil  because  Brazil  has  a  favorable 
temperature,  a  favorable  rainfall,  a  favorable  soil,  and  a 
favorable  topography.  A  similar  response  may  be  made 
for  any  other  farm  product.  The  statement  necessarily  is 
truthful,  but  is  of  little  value  because  it  does  not  indicate 
the  kind  of  temperature,  rainfall,  topography,  and  soil 
that  is  desirable. 


THE  TOPICAL  OUTLINE  207 

The  topical  outline  and  problem  work.  There  is  a  very 
close  relation  between  the  topical  outline  and  problem 
work.  Children  may  approach  the  study  of  a  country 
from  the  life  side,  using  such  physical  factors  as  seem 
necessary  for  understanding  the  problems.  Knowledge  of 
the  significance  of  location,  climate,  etc.  will  be  incident- 
ally secured  as  needed  in  the  interpretation  of  the  prob- 
lems arising.  If  the  details  of  the  country  are  grasped 
through  problems  that  do  not  isolate  the  physical  factors, 
an  opportunity  for  organizing  and  reviewing  the  material 
by  means  of  a  topical  outline  is  presented.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  a  country  is  studied  by  means  of  a  topical  outline, 
the  pupils  have  in  mind  the  details  of  the  country  neces- 
sary for  the  solution  of  life  problems,  and  their  ability 
to  utilize  this  knowledge  may  be  tested  and  increased  by 
their  attempts  to  solve  normal  problems  involving  the 
varying  physical  factors.  Neither  method  of  procedure 
can  be  exclusively  justified.  The  topical  outline  may  be 
used  at  times  as  an  introduction  and  at  times  as  a  means 
of  reviewing  and  organizing  the  details  of  the  country 
studied. 

Distribution  of  topical  work  in  the  grades.  In  the  ob- 
servational work  of  the  lower  grades  the  oral  discussions 
offer  an  excellent  opportunity  for  organizing  the  work 
topically.  After  visiting  some  factory  or  topographic 
form  the  class  may  discuss  the  topics  as  they  are  suggested 
by  pupils,  and  the  topics  may  be  reorganized  at  the  close  ; 
or  pupils  may  suggest  topics,  and  the  topics  may  be  rear- 
ranged by  the  class  before  the  detailed  discussion  begins. 

In  the  developmental  oral  work  in  the  lower  grades 
the  teacher  develops  a  topic  orally  with  the  help  of  various 


208  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

illustrative  materials.  The  teacher  may  have  an  outline 
organization  on  the  board  and  may  merely  develop  this 
outline,  or  she  may  place  the  topics  on  the  board  as  she 
discusses  them,  or  she  may  center  the  attention  of  the 
children  on  the  oral  presentation,  making  an  easy  transi- 
tion from  one  topic  to  another.  At  the  close  of  the 
developmental  exercise  the  teacher  may  ask  the  children 
to  name  the  topics  discussed.  The  pupils  will  assist  in 
noting  and  rearranging  the  topics.  The  last-named 
method,   ordinarily,  is  preferable. 

In  the  upper  grades,  because  of  the  pupil's  ability  to 
use  the  symbols  of  geography  and  because  of  his  experi- 
ence, the  emphasis  is  shifted  from  observational  and  oral 
presentation  to  symbolic  presentation.  The  pupil  will 
read  and  outline  articles.  He  will  attempt  to  evaluate  the 
topical  organization  of  writers.  The  topical  organization 
of  the  textbook  may  be  followed,  and  each  topic  may  be 
enriched  from  supplementary  materials.  A  topical  outline 
without  reference  to  a  textbook  may  be  followed,  the 
various  materials  of  geography  being  used  to  secure  the 
needed  amplification. 

Value  of  the  topical  outline.  The  above  considerations 
suggest  the  value  of  the  topical  outline.  Even  in  the  prob- 
lem work  the  esteem  in  which  the  topical  outline  is  held 
is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  most  of  the  problems  thus  far 
presented  have  involved  the  raising  of  problems  the  solu- 
tion of  which  includes  a  discussion  of  the  former  topical 
outline  of  a  country.  The  problem  is  simply  an  attempt 
to  make  such  work  purposeful. 

The  value  of  the  topical  outline  depends  on  the 
way  it  is  handled.    If  the  teacher  works  out  a  topical 


THE  TOPICAL  OUTLINE  209 

organization  or  adopts  the  topical  outline  of  another,  and 
merely  tells  the  class  to  study  the  topics ;  if  the  topics  are 
studied  without  any  particular  problem's  being  secured 
and  interpreted,  the  chief  emphasis  being  placed  on  mem- 
ory work ;  if  there  is  no  relating  of  topics,  but  each  topic 
is  considered  in  relative  isolation ;  if  the  mere  amplifica- 
tion of  topic  after  topic,  with  the  feeling  that  the  work  is 
completed  when  the  last  topic  is  studied,  is  permitted ;  if 
there  is  no  attempt  to  use  the  topical  material  in  im- 
portant, vital  life  situations,- — then  it  may  be  said  that 
the  value  of  the  topical  exercise  is  at  a  low  ebb. 

If  the  topical  outline  is  secured  by  the  class  because  of 
its  need  for  and  recognition  of  the  value  of  organization 
and  classification  of  details ;  if  the  outline  is  tested  on 
other  countries  so  that  its  adequacy  is  ascertained ;  if  the 
outline  is  applied  so  that  each  topic  is  resolved  into  im- 
portant problems  making  a  strong  appeal ;  if  the  pupil, 
through  the  solution  of  problems  involving  a  combination 
of  physical  factors,  shows  his  ability  to  use  the  materials 
topically  organized, — then  the  high  value  of  the  topical 
lesson  cannot  be  seriously  questioned. 

Suggestions  for  Further  Study  : 

1.  Make  a  topical  outline  that  you  think  should  be  applied  to 

(a)  a  city,  (b)  a  country,  and  (c)  a  continent. 

2.  Distinguish  between  "developing"  an  outline  with  a  class  and 

"imposing"'  an  outline  on  a   class. 

3.  Can  the  problem  method  be  effectively  utilized  through  the 
topical  outline  ? 

4.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  a  topical  outline 
in  geography  ? 


210  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Selected  References : 

Anderson,   Esther   S.    "  Beet    Sugar   Production   in   Nebraska,*' 

Journal  of  Geography  (1920),   Vol.   XIX,  pp.    121-130. 
Barer.   Zoxia.     "Eurasia:    The   Teaching  of   the   Continent  of," 

Elementary  School  Teacher.  Vol.   VII,  p.   519. 
Brown,  R.  M.    "An  Outline  for  the  Presentation  of  a  Country  — 

Africa,"  Elementary  School  Teacher.  Vol.  IX.  pp.  293-308. 
Gregory.  W.  M.    "The  Cotton  Industry ,"  Journal  of  Education 

(191 1),  Vol.  LXXIV,  pp.  462-463. 
Reed,  William  G.    "  Outline  for  the  Study  of  Frost,"  Journal  of 

Geography  (191  5).  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  54—55. 
Ruediger,    VV.    C.     "Topical    Method.'"   Journal   of  Geography, 

Vol.   IV.  pp.  43S-439. 
"Topical    Method.*'  Journal  of  Education   (1906),    Vol.    LXIV, 

pp.  650-651. 


CHAPTER   XVI 
JOURNEY  GEOGRAPHY 

Nature  of  journey  geography.  Journey  geography  in- 
volves the  consideration  of  a  region  with  reference  to  its 
transportation  routes.  Pupils  may  take  (i)  real  journeys 
and  (2)  imaginary  journeys.  Journey-geography  trips, 
which  are  actually  taken,  ordinarily  are  confined  to  the 
local  area.  The  imaginary-journey  lesson  is  fundamental 
in  acquainting  the  child  with  those  areas  beyond  his  im- 
mediate observation.  An  attempt  is  made  to  make  the 
imaginary  journey  as  vivid  as  possible  through  the  use 
of  visualization  materials. 

Illustration  of  actual  journeys.  In  connection  with  a 
study  of  dairying  arose  the  problem  "Why  should  the 
consumer  of  the  city  pay  fourteen  cents  a  quart  for  milk 
for  which  the  producer  receives  but  seven  cents?"  The 
class,  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher,  was  not  satisfied 
with  a  verbal  explanation.  Arrangements  were  made  to 
inspect  a  dairy  plant.  The  pupils  indicated  in  a  rough 
sketch  the  relative  positions  of  the  school  building  and 
the  dairy  plant,  the  route  taken,  and  important  landmarks 
noted  along  the  route.  They  verified  their  sketch  map 
from  a  large  map  of  the  city. 

At  the  plant  the  children  noticed  the  unloading  of  the 
filled  milk  cans  from  the  auto  trucks,  the  elevating  of  the 
milk  cans  to  the  fourth  floor,  the  testing,  the  clarifying, 


212  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

the  pasteurizing,  and  the  bottling  of  the  milk,  and  the 
cold-storage  room  in  which  the  milk  was  kept.  They 
noticed  the  handwork  required  in  cleaning  the  empty- 
bottles,  the  work  of  the  bottle-washer  machines,  and  the 
large  number  of  broken  and  discarded  bottles.  They 
noticed  the  large  office  force  and  the  numerous  milk 
wagons  and  drivers.  While  the  pupils  were  not  able  to 
determine  mathematically  the  exact  increase  in  the  cost 
of  milk,  they  readily  understood  that  the  expense  involved 
in  protecting  the  milk  supply  of  a  large  city  justified  the 
milk  distributors  in  charging  considerably  more  than  the 
original  cost  of  seven  cents  a  quart. 

The  cream  was  removed  from  the  whole  milk  for  which 
there  was  no  sale.  This  cream  was  soured,  churned,  and 
made  into  butter  and  buttermilk.  An  inquiry  revealed 
that  margarine  had  taken  the  place  of  butter  in  most  of 
the  homes  of  the  children  because  two  pounds  of  mar- 
garine could  be  purchased  for  the  price  of  one  pound  of 
butter.  Out  of  this  discussion  arose  the  question  "Why 
is  margarine  cheaper  than  butter  ?  " 

A  visit  to  a  margarine  plant  and  to  a  dairy  farm  seemed 
desirable  to  assist  in  understanding  the  substantial  differ- 
ence in  the  price  of  butter  and  margarine.  At  the  dairy 
farm  the  investment  in  land,  buildings,  and  dairy  cattle 
was  noted.  The  care  of  the  cows,  the  production  and 
purchase  of  foods,  the  care  of  the  milk,  and  the  separation 
of  the  milk  were  considered.  A  study  was  made  of  the 
possibility  of  producing  food  for  direct  use  by  man  in 
larger  quantities  than  was  secured  by  permitting  the  cow 
to  change  the  plant  foods  into  milk.  It  was  seen  that 
dairying  requires  attention  to  numerous  details. 


JOURNEY  GEOGRAPHY  213 

At  the  margarine  plant  the  pupils  noted  the  melting 
and  mixing  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  oils,  the  pasteur- 
izing of  the  whole  milk  in  which  the  oils  were  churned, 
the  plunging  of  the  emulsion  into  ice-cold  water  (where 
the  fat  globules  were  crystallized),  the  withdrawal  of  the 
crystallized  Hakes  from  the  cold  water  by  means  of  cheese- 
cloth, the  working  of  salt  into  the  margarine  and  of  water 
out  of  the  margarine,  the  molding  of  the  butter,  and  the 
forming  of  prints.  They  were  led,  through  this  observa- 
tion, to  make  a  detailed  study  of  the  reason  for  the  low 
price  of  vegetable  oils — as  coconut,  peanut,  and  cotton- 
seed oil — in  contrast  to  the  cream  of  milk. 

The  children  had  taken  bottles  to  the  plants,  and  on 
returning  to  school  they  pooled  their  samples.  The  cream 
gathered  at  the  top  of  the  milk  and  was  then  skimmed  off 
and  churned  into  butter  in  a  milk  jar.  The  children  had  a 
liberal  supply  of  coconut,  cottonseed,  and  animal  oils  from 
the  margarine  plant.  Under  the  direction  of  the  teacher 
they  considered  the  materials  used  and  the  processes  em- 
ployed. They  then  pasteurized  the  milk  over  an  alcohol 
lamp,  using  a  thermometer  to  maintain  the  proper  temper- 
atures, melted  the  oils  in  pans,  and  mixed  the  oils.  The  oils 
were  then  poured  into  a  glass  churn  with  the  whole  milk. 
After  churning  the  emulsion  the  children  poured  it  into  a 
pan  of  ice-cold  water,  in  which,  after  agitation,  the  fat 
globules  began  to  crystallize.  They  took  a  small  piece  of 
cheesecloth,  dipped  it  slantingly  in  the  ice  water,  and  with- 
drew the  flakes  of  margarine,  the  whey  draining  through 
the  cloth.    They  then  salted  and  colored  the  margarine. 

In  each  instance  rough  sketch  maps  were  made.  The 
experiments  set  up  in  the  schoolroom  indicated  clearly 


214  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

the  notions  that  the  children  had  derived  from  the  trips. 
Language  was  significant,  but  the  additional  means  of 
expression  guarded  against  a  mere  mastery  of  language 
without  corresponding  ideas.  It  will  be  noted  that  all 
these  trips  were  closely  related  to  the  work  of  the  school- 
room. The  class,  through  field  work,  came  into  appropri- 
ate contact  with  the  active  work  of  the  world. 

Verification  and  discovery.  Trips  may  be  taken  to 
verify  conclusions  reached  in  the  schoolroom  or  to  make 
discoveries  as  a  basis  for  discussion.  In  most  instances 
it  is  preferable  to  arouse  an  initial  interest  in  any  field 
trip  that  is  to  be  taken.  Most  trips  involve  both  dis- 
covery and  verification.  If  a  child  believes  that  certain 
conditions  exist,  the  field  trip  may  enable  him  to  verify 
his  conclusions.  If  a  child  does  not  know  whether  certain 
conditions  exist,  but  feels  the  need  of  knowing,  the  field 
trip  may  enable  him  to  discover  the  true  conditions. 
Since  the  experiences  of  children  in  the  same  class  vary 
considerably,  the  same  field  trip  may  be  primarily  a  trip 
of  discovery  for  one  child  but  primarily  a  trip  of  verifica- 
tion for  another  child. 

Pupils  may  make  trips  of  discovery  with  definite 
motives  in  mind.  Columbus  sailed  west  with  the  desire  to 
reach  the  Indies.  He  found  not  the  Indies  but  a  new 
world.  Captain  Amundsen  moved  southward  in  an  at- 
tempt to  discover  the  south  pole.  He  was  successful  and, 
in  addition,  made  other  important  discoveries  that  he  had 
not  anticipated.  Pupils  may  desire  to  find  the  source  of 
water  in  a  small  creek,  a  good  swimming  hole,  a  place  to 
fish,  typical  meanders,  a  flood  plain,  evidences  of  valley 
growth,  or  a  fault.    They  may  desire  to  find  out  how 


JOURNEY  GEOGRAPHY  215 

milk  is  handled  at  the  dairy  plant,  how  a  dairy  farm  is 
conducted,  or  how  margarine  is  made.  The  type  of  experi- 
ence they  should  have  may  be  drawn  from  the  actual 
experiences  of  explorers  and  discoverers.  They  should  fre- 
quently realize  their  desires,  and  they  should  also  make 
additional  discoveries. 

While  the  trip  may  be  one  of  discovery  for  the  child, 
the  teacher  has  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  ground 
covered  and  relates  the  materials  to  the  child's  interests 
and  experiences.  She  directs  the  motives  of  the  children 
in  such  a  way  that  through  the  journeys  she  may  realize 
definite  educational  aims.  She  has  a  flexible  organization 
of  content  which  enables  her  to  adapt.  The  teacher  does 
not  force  her  personality  or  her  opinions  upon  the  group, 
but  she  tries  to  help  the  pupils  to  come  to  their  own  con- 
clusions in  the  light  of  the  evidence  presented.  She  asks 
questions,  calls  the  attention  of  the  children  to  important 
phenomena  which  they  are  overlooking,  and  helps  to  main- 
tain interest  in  worth-while  observations. 

When  a  child  is  planning  a  trip  to  the  country,  to 
another  city,  or  to  a  picnic  or  a  Fourth  of  July  celebration, 
he  looks  forward  to  the  event  with  pleasurable  anticipa- 
tion. When  the  time  comes  he  is  in  a  frame  of  mind  that 
will  enable  him  to  secure  numerous  and  vivid  impressions 
of  the  incidents  of  the  day.  Reasoning  from  this  stand- 
point, through  a  discussion  of  a  planned  field  trip  a  pleas- 
urable, anticipative  interest  can  be  aroused  which  will 
increase  the  educational  possibilities  of  the  trip. 

On  a  physical-geography  trip  the  pupils  may  note 
topographic  forms  and  processes  and  the  importance  of 
processes    in    changing    the    physical    features;    on    an 


216  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

economic-geography  trip  the  pupils  may  note  what  is 
being  made,  the  processes,  the  raw  materials,  and  whether 
the  results  are  secured  in  the  most  desirable  and  efficient 
manner. 

In  the  study  of  an  industry  there  is  danger  that  a  child 
will  pass  through  the  factory  with  a  dazed  impression  of 
something  worth  while.  The  factory  lecturer  frequently 
has  little  conception  of  educational  methods.  A  tactful 
teacher  may  take  charge  of  the  pupils  and  direct  the  work. 
The  lecturer  will  accompany  the  group  to  assist  when 
needed.  If  time  will  not  permit  the  pupils  to  study  every 
part  of  the  factory  thoroughly,  certain  significant  parts 
within  the  comprehension  of  the  group  should  be  selected 
for  detailed  study.  If  the  noise  is  too  great  for  a  discus- 
sion at  the  time  of  observation,  the  teacher  discusses  the 
process  with  the  class  immediately  before  the  observation 
and  immediately  after,  in  order  that  she  may  assist  the 
pupil,  clarify  thought,  and  insure  results. 

Field  notes  will  not  be  emphasized  in  the  lower  grades ; 
in  the  upper  grades  the  taking  of  notes  will  be  increasingly 
emphasized.  Field  notes  reenforcc  the  memory  in  subse- 
quent discussions  or  reorganizations  of  material.  The 
pupil  takes  field  notes  because  he  finds  them  of  value ; 
the  teacher  is  interested  in  the  skill  developed  in  record- 
ing neatly,  effectively,  and  pointedly  the  impressions 
received. 

A  detailed  discussion  should  follow  a  journey.  The 
child  will  live  over  in  imagination  the  journey  actually 
taken.  The  discussion  should  be  vivid  and  enthusiastic. 
The  details  of  the  trip  may  be  organized.  The  child 
through  his  recall  of  the  details  of  the  real  journey  will 


JOURNEY  GEOGRAPHY  217 

appreciate  more  readily  the  possibilities  of  the  imaginary- 
journey,  the  details  of  which  must  be  worked  out  largely 
through  symbolic  materials. 

Illustration  oj  imaginary  journeys.  The  teacher  drew 
upon  the  travel  experiences  of  the  children.  The  pupils 
mentioned  acquaintances  who  had  traveled.  These  peo- 
ple had  traveled  for  business  reasons,  to  renew  acquaint- 
ances, to  improve  their  health,  for  recreation,  to  learn 
what  the  rest  of  the  world  was  doing,  or  to  see  beautiful 
scenery  and  famous  places.  A  number  had  traveled  to 
''see  America  first."  The  places  that  had  been  visited 
were  mentioned.  Considerable  interest  was  aroused  in 
other  people  and  in  other  lands.  Members  of  the  class 
desired  to  see  New  York  City.  They  wanted  to  see  the 
buildings  and  the  people,  especially  how  the  people  live. 
Among  other  places  were  mentioned  Niagara  Falls,  Ashe- 
ville  (North  Carolina),  the  Hudson  River,  Mount  Vernon, 
the  Blue  Grass  country,  Florida,  and  southern  California. 
The  class  decided  to  become  acquainted  with  the  circle 
tours  offered  by  the  railroad  companies  and  to  select  the 
circle  tour  which  would  include  those  places  in  which  the 
keenest  interest  had  been  aroused.  It  was  found  that 
the  eastern  objective  of  many  of  the  circle  tours  was  New 
York  City.  It  was  agreed  that  New  York  City  should  be 
the  destination  and  that  the  return  journey  should  be  by  a 
different  route. 

The  pupils  inferred  from  a  map  the  principal  routes 
connecting  St.  Louis  and  New  York  City.  These  infer- 
ences were  checked  by  inquiry  at  the  Information  Bureau. 
Railroad  folders  advertising  the  several  routes  were 
secured.    The  different  routes  were  compared  as  to  cost, 


218  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

time  required,  important  places,  and  beautiful  scenery. 
The  route  finally  selected  was  from  St.  Louis  via  Cincin- 
nati, Lexington  (Kentucky),  Chattanooga  (Tennessee), 
Asheville  (North  Carolina),  Norfolk  (Virginia),  and  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  to  New  York  City.  The  return  journey 
was  via  Albany,  Rochester,  Buffalo,  Detroit,  and  Chicago. 
The  attractions  along  the  route  selected  were  studied 
in  detail.  The  time-tables  were  frequently  consulted.  A 
coal  mine  was  visited  and  studied  in  southern  Illinois. 
A  fast  afternoon  train  stopped  near  the  mine  for  water. 
This  train  was  boarded,  and  the  party  proceeded  to 
Vincennes  (Indiana),  where  the  night  was  spent.  The 
next  day  the  party  proceeded  to  Cincinnati,  where  the 
pottery  works  and  the  ''zoo"  were  visited.  The  party 
proceeded  southward  across  the  Ohio  River  to  the  heart 
of  the  Blue  Grass  region  at  Lexington  (Kentucky),  where 
it  visited  a  dairy  farm  and  the  Blue  Grass  Fair.  Between 
Lexington  and  Chattanooga  (Tennessee)  the  Cumberland 
Mountains  offered  an  opportunity  to  study  the  life  of 
the  mountaineer.  At  Chattanooga  the  class  studied  Look- 
out Mountain  and  the  Chickamauga  battlefields.  The 
party  proceeded  northeast  through  the  famous  Great 
Valley  of  East  Tennessee  and  noted  the  crops  and  the 
pink-marble  quarries  about  Knoxville.  An  observation 
car  was  taken  the  succeeding  day  to  get  a  better  glimpse 
of  the  "Land  of  the  Sky"  region.  Arrangements  were 
made  to  ascend  the  slopes  of  Mt.  Mitchell,  the  "top 
of  eastern  America,"  on  a  log  train.  The  party  walked 
to  the  top  of  the  peak,  where  it  noted  a  monument 
erected  in  memory  of  Professor  Mitchell,  learned  the 
story    of    the    naming    of    the    mountain,    and    observed 


JOURNEY  GEOGRAPHY  219 

beautiful  panoramic  views,  hidden  occasionally  by  drift- 
ing banks  of  fog.  At  Norfolk  the  ships  were  noted,  a  few 
hours  were  spent  among  the  sand  dunes  at  the  entrance 
to  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  the  party  for  the  first  time  went 
bathing  in  the  ocean.  The  party  left  Norfolk  on  a  coast- 
wise steamer  Saturday  evening,  arriving  at  New  York 
Sunday  afternoon.  The  harbor  and  city  were  studied, 
and  a  boat  ride  was  taken  around  Manhattan  Island. 
The  return  journey  was  begun.  This  involved  a  daylight 
ride  up  the  Hudson ;  an  early  morning  ride  out  of  Albany 
on  a  milk  train  to  Canajoharie,  where  a  large  factory  was 
inspected  and  an  automobile  ride  taken  into  the  adjoin- 
ing country ;  an  inspection  of  Buffalo  factories  and  a  side 
trip  to  Niagara  Falls ;  a  night  ride  on  Lake  Erie  to 
Detroit,  where  an  automobile  factory  was  visited ;  a  ride 
in  a  sleeper  to  Chicago,  with  its  stockyards  and  lake 
front ;  and  a  daylight  ride  through  the  famous  corn  belt 
of  central  Illinois  back  to  St.  Louis,  the  starting  point. 
Through  the  wealth  of  detail  presented  the  pupils  had 
come  to  appreciate  the  varied  industries  and  scenery  of 
the  eastern  United  States,  and  with  the  use  of  illustrative 
materials,  as  maps,  pictures,  diagrams,  and  products,  had 
taken  in  imagination  a  journey  that  many  people  take 
every  year.  The  imaginary  journey,  as  nearly  as  possible, 
duplicated  a  real  journey,  thus  bringing  a  part  of  the  real 
world  close  to  the  life  of  each  child.  In  this  particular 
instance  the  pupils  talked  in  terms  of  the  future  in  decid- 
ing on  the  journey,  and  in  terms  of  the  present  tense  in 
studying  the  details  of  the  journey.  This  can  be  varied 
according  to  the  attitude  of  the  class.  With  some  classes 
it  may  be  preferable  to  speak  of  the  journey  in  detail  in 


220  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

the  future  tense,  the  pupils  merely  visualizing  the  details 
that  might  be  noted  if  the  journey  were  actually  taken. 

Imitate  real  travel  experiences.  In  the  extended  imag- 
inary journeys  it  is  desirable  that  the  journey  shall  be  as 
nearly  real  as  possible.  If  an  adult  were  planning  a  trip 
he  would  find  out  the  various  routes  and  their  attractions 
and  the  probable  expenses.  After  deciding  on  a  par- 
ticular journey  he  would  begin  to  make  a  special  study  of 
the  attractions  along  the  route.  After  thorough  prepara- 
tion in  order  that  he  might  travel  intelligently,  he  would 
proceed  on  the  journey.  He  would  verify  impressions  he 
had  received  while  anticipating  the  journey,  and  he  would 
discover  things  that  had  not  before  come  to  his  attention. 
After  the  completion  of  the  journey  he  would  probably  be 
interested  in  discussing  and  organizing  his  experiences. 
These  conditions  would  prevail,  provided  the  traveler 
desired  to  secure  a  maximum  of  benefit  from  the  trip.  It 
may  be  admitted,  however,  that  many  people  travel  with- 
out securing  much  travel  experience.  They  become 
acquainted  with  the  hotels,  but  otherwise  restrict  their 
experiences  to  the  social  group  with  whom  they  are  travel- 
ing. They  carry  their  local  environment  with  them  not  as 
a  basis  for  the  interpretation  of  new  environments  but  as 
an  artificial  situation  in  which  to  live.  If  journey  geog- 
raphy is  to  yield  a  maximum  of  benefit  to  the  children, 
the  journeys  must  be  planned  and  executed  according  to 
the  manner  of  those  who  travel  intelligently. 

The  teacher  has  the  responsibility  of  stimulating  the 
pupils  to  become  interested  in  travel  routes.  In  the  plan- 
ning of  the  trip  she  will  not  tell  them  all  the  interesting 
things  about  the  route.    The  profitable  journey  includes 


JOURNEY  GEOGRAPHY  221 

a  confirmation  of  the  anticipated,  but  also  the  opening  up 
of  new  vistas.  An  abundance  of  varied  and  well-selected 
representative  material  of  choice  readings,  pictures,  maps, 
diagrams,  drawings,  etc.  is  desirable  as  a  school  nucleus 
for  the  work,  and  pupils  will  supplement  these  mate- 
rials with  out-of-school  sources.  Outline  maps  can  be 
profitably  used  as  the  work  progresses.  At  the  con- 
clusion of  the  journey  the  material  may  be  organized  into 
a  logical  whole. 

Nature  of  the  imaginary  journey.  Transportation 
routes  constitute  the  organizing  nuclei  for  journey  geog- 
raphy. The  reader  or  listener  is  taken  in  imagination 
from  one  place  to  another.  The  customary  means  of 
transporting  is  employed,  and  an  attempt  is  made  to  inter- 
pret the  phenomena  observed.  The  impressions  that  a 
traveler  receives  concerning  the  customs  and  the  economic 
activities  are  given.  Journey  geography  involves  several 
possibilities:  (1)  the  writer  may  give  a  personal  account, 
and  the  reader  may  follow  appreciatively  the  journey 
actually  taken;  (2)  the  writer  may  attempt  to  make  his 
reader,  in  imagination,  a  member  of  the  party;  (3)  the 
writer  may  not  have  taken  the  journey,  but  with  a  de- 
tailed second-hand  knowledge  of  the  region  may  write  an 
account  of  a  journey  that  might  be  taken;  (4)  the  pupil 
may  draw  upon  various  appropriate  materials  in  select- 
ing and  planning  and  executing  a  journey  that  might  be 
taken. 

The  journey  may  be  developed  so  that  the  author  does 
most  of  the  thinking  for  the  reader.  When  a  pupil  follows 
the  detailed  account  of  a  journey,  reflective,  independent 
thinking  is  not  necessarily  eliminated,  but  the  pupil  who 


222  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

follows  the  line  of  least  resistance  will  read  the  account 
primarily  on  an  unanalyzed  memory  level.  If  the  pupils 
assist  in  initiating  the  journey,  and  if  they  work  out  the 
details  of  the  journey,  the  siiuation  is  much  more  favor- 
able for  problem  activity  and  vigorous  mental  reactions 
involving  development. 

The  pupil  inductively  builds  up  his  conception  of  the 
region.  This  method  does  not  preclude  the  possibilities  of 
generalizing  or  of  relating  the  area  observed  to  a  larger 
area,  for  the  traveler  occasionally  may  attempt,  through 
reflection,  to  secure  a  unit  picture  of  an  area  through  the 
parts  directly  observed.  The  pupil  proceeds  from  a  study 
of  parts  to  a  concept  of  the  region,  which  is  essentially 
different  from  the  topical  consideration  of  a  large  area. 
Since  the  impressions  of  larger  areas  are  secured  from  the 
local  studies,  it  is  desirable  that  the  typical  rather  than 
the  peculiar  and  exceptional  shall  be  emphasized. 

A  journey  may  include  any  aspects  of  the  environment 
that  a  traveler  may  consider  sufficiently  important  or 
interesting.  It  may  be  adapted  to  small  children  ;  it  may 
be  sufficiently  difficult  for  the  most  accomplished  scholar. 
Journey  geography  should  involve  a  consideration  of 
(i)  the  economic  activities  of  people;  (2)  explanations 
of  the  localization  of  industries  and  people  ;  (3)  the  effects 
of  physical  factors,  particularly  climate,  topography,  and 
soils  on  the  people;  (4)  the  relations  of  the  people  to 
other  regions;  (5)  the  possibilities  of  making  a  more 
nearly  perfect  adjustment  to  the  environment ;  and 
(6)  natural  phenomena  of  special  significance,  as  hot 
springs,  beautiful  scenery,  glaciers,  volcanoes,  etc.  The 
earliest  geography  work  of  the  school  has  been  concerned 


JOURNEY  GEOGRAPHY  223 

with  the  immediate  environment  of  the  child.  Through 
actual  journeys  the  child's  acquaintance  with  the  local 
environment  has  been  enlarged.  Imaginary  geographic 
journeys  which  reproduce  as  nearly  as  possible  the  vivid- 
ness of  the  actual  journeys  build  upon  and  naturally 
succeed  the  actual  journey  work.  Through  the  imaginary 
journey  the  child  gradually  secures  a  conception  of  the 
world  as  a  whole.  In  the  upper  grades,  where  the  emphasis 
is  placed  on  regional  geography,  the  journey  geography 
may  still  be  used  as  a  basis  for  becoming  better  acquainted 
with  a  region,  or  after  a  detailed  study  of  a  region  the 
pupil  may  review  the  region  by  mapping  out  a  journey 
that   might   be   taken. 

Suggestions  for  Further  Study : 

1.  Discuss  a  local  trip  that  you  have  taken,  from  the  standpoint 
of  its  geography. 

2.  Discuss    an   extended    trip    that   you    have    taken,    from    the 
standpoint  of  its  geography. 

3.  By  means   of  an  illustration  indicate  what  is   meant  by  an 
imaginary  journey. 

4.  Should   journeys   be   taken   primarily   for  verification   or   for 
discovery  ? 

5.  How  will  travel  help  a  teacher  in  presenting  journey-geography 
lessons  ? 

Selected  References : 

Baker,  Zoxia.  "A  Lesson  in  Geography  from  Chicago  to  the 
Atlantic,"  Elementary  School   Tern  lie/;  Vol.   VII,  p.  45S. 

Bakxi.s.  Earl.    Studies  in  Education  11902),  Vol.  II. 

Bkaxom,  Fred  K.  ''Some  Important  Phases  in  Geography.*' 
School,  Science,  ami  Mathematics  (  19201.  Vol.  XX,  pp.  162-164. 

Colvix.  S.  S.  "Child's  World  of  Imagination,"  Elementary  School 
Teacher  (1905),  Vol.  VI,  pp.  327-342. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
TYPE  STUDIES 

Nature  of  a  type.  A  detailed  study  of  a  representative 
member  of  a  class,  with  the  purpose  of  securing  an  under- 
standing of  the  various  members  of  the  class,  is  called  a 
type  study. 

A  type  is  a  topic  that  stands  for  a  group  or  a  class,  a 
standard  of  comparison,  and  an  interpreter  of  other  similar 
facts.  Type  study  in  geography  means  the  selection  of  repre- 
sentative topics  or  features  of  the  subject  for  especial  emphasis 
or  detailed  study,  for  the  purpose  of  using  them  as  illustrations 
of  their  class.1 

The  type  may  be  used  in  the  study  of  both  large  and 
small  units.  An  intensive  study  of  a  cotton  plantation 
of  the  southern  United  States  may  be  made  as  a  type  of 
cotton  plantations  in  general.  A  study  of  conditions  affect- 
ing cotton  production  in  the  United  States  may  be  made 
as  a  basis  for  an  understanding  of  cotton  production  in 
other  regions.  A  cotton  mill  may  be  studied  intensively 
as  representative  of  its  class.  Type  cities,  as  a  river  city 
(St.  Louis),  a  lake  city  (Chicago),  a  river-gate  city  (New 
Orleans),  a  railroad  center  (Indianapolis),  a  mountain 
city  (Asheville),  a  mountain-gate  city   (Denver),  and  a 

1  ¥.  L.  Holtz,  Principles  and  Methods  of  Teaching  Geography,  p.  241. 

224 


TYPE  STUDIES  225 

capital  city  (Washington),  may  be  studied.  Some  partic- 
ular mountain,  valley,  river  system,  volcano,  glacier,  des- 
ert, or  forest  may  be  selected  for  representative  study. 

Types  are  selected  with  reference  to  their  significance 
in  the  local  areas  or  with  reference  to  their  relative  sig- 
nificance in  the  world  as  a  whole.  In  the  lower  grades 
the  type  directly  related  to  the  local  area  is  prominent ; 
in  the  upper  grades  the  type  with  the  world-wide  view- 
point is  emphasized.  Although  dairying  may  not  be  rela- 
tively very  important  in  the  rural  area  adjacent  to  a  city, 
a  pupil  may  make  a  detailed  study  of  dairying  as  repre- 
sentative of  the  way  that  every  large  city  is  supplied  with 
dairy  products.  If  dairying  as  a  world-wide  activity  is 
being  considered  in  the  upper  grades,  the  type  may  be 
selected  from  some  area  as  central  New  York,  Wisconsin, 
Ontario,  or  Holland,  where  dairying  is  very  important 
in  contrast  to  other  industries.  Local  types  eventually 
should  give  way  to  the  most  representative  type  that  can 
be  found,  irrespective  of  locality. 

Representative  character  of  the  type.  A  type  study 
should  be  representative  of  general  conditions.  It  is 
scarcely  conveying  a  correct  impression  to  take  the  poor- 
est dairy  farm  or  the  best  dairy  farm  in  the  community  to 
study  unless  contrasts  are  emphasized.  The  normal  con- 
ditions rather  than  the  exceptional  are  the  immediately 
significant  factors.  The  exceptional  conditions,  however, 
may  be  nuclei  that  will  increase  until  they  have  in  turn 
become  normal  and  representative.  As  an  ideal,  conse- 
quently, it  is  desirable  that  the  best  rather  than  the  poor- 
est unit  shall  be  studied,  care  being  taken  to  indicate  the 
ordinary  departures  from  this  type. 


226  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

A  wealth  of  details.  A  type  should  involve  a  wealth  of 
details.  Too  frequently  generalizations  are  memorized 
and  not  developed.  If  equal  emphasis  is  placed  upon  all 
facts  of  geography,  the  work  must  be  largely  superficial. 
The  selection  of  a  few  situations  for  intensive  study  en- 
ables the  class  to  secure  a  grasp  of  details  that  makes  the 
work  concrete,  vivid,  and  meaningful.  Any  summary  of 
the  study  that  may  follow  is  bristling  with  significant 
statements,  for  the  "condensed  knowledge"  has  been 
secured  through  the  study  of  details.  It  is  not  desirable 
to  emphasize  similarly  every  detail  of  a  type  study,  since 
the  same  objections  are  valid  that  have  been  raised  to  the 
placing  of  equal  emphasis  upon  all  geographic  topics. 
Neither  is  it  necessarily  desirable  to  discuss  every  detail 
that  may  have  a  bearing  upon  the  type  study.  Not  all 
details  are  vital  either  as  information  or  as  coloring 
material  to  the  type.  The  facts  selected  should  be  adapted 
to  the  children  involved  in  the  type  study. 

Nucleus  for  further  study.  The  type  is  a  nucleus  for 
further  study.  In  the  early  grades,  in  a  consideration  of 
the  interdependence  of  city  and  country,  if  wheat  is  pro- 
duced in  the  local  neighborhood  a  study  of  local  produc- 
tion is  made.  In  the  regional  work  an  intensive  study  of 
wheat  production  is  made  in  an  area  where  this  product  is 
very  important.  As  successive  regions  are  taken  up  no 
further  intensive  study  is  necessary  ;  but  the  earlier  work 
is  reviewed,  and  through  comparisons  and  contrasts  wheat 
production  in  the  new  areas  is  interpreted  and  a  detailed 
study  is  made  of  new  factors  that  enter  into  the  situation. 
Finally  a  world-whole  view  of  the  product  is  secured, 
the  comparisons  and  contrasts  involved  tending  to  bring 


TYPE  STUDIES  227 

together  in  a  unified  whole  the  significance  of  the  product 
to  the  world.  Thus  type  studies  in  the  lower  grades 
become  organizing  centers  about  which  details  are  in- 
creasingly clustered  and  upon  which  much  of  the  upper- 
grade  work  is  based.  An  economy  of  time  may  be  effected 
through  the  use  of  the  type.  Wheat  is  raised  in  many 
different  regions.  If  a  detailed  study  of  wheat  production 
in  the  United  States  is  made  in  connection  with  the 
regional  geography,  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  enter 
into  a  detailed  discussion  in  connection  with  each  of 
the  wheat-producing  regions. 

Opportunity  for  review.  The  type  offers  an  oppor- 
tunity for  an  intelligent  review.  Many  of  the  details  of 
the  type  study  may  be  forgotten.  A  consideration  of 
wheat  production  in  various  regions,  as  the  regions  of  the 
world  are  successively  considered,  offers  an  opportunity 
for  the  use  of  the  type-study  content  in  new  situations 
a  sufficient  number  of  times  to  insure  relative  permanency 
of  impression.  Because  of  the  vividness  of  the  type  study 
the  details  will  be  more  readily  recalled. 

Organizing  centers.  The  field  of  geography  is  entirely 
too  comprehensive  to  be  covered  in  a  detailed  fashion  in 
grade  geography.  From  the  mass  of  details  it  is  neces- 
sary to  select  the  more  important.  Material  that  is 
selected  should  offer  a  ready  nucleus  for  further  growth 
and  should  be  an  organizing  center  about  which  addi- 
tional material  can  be  clustered.  In  every  region  there  is 
a  complex  of  geographic  material.  Some  of  this  material 
is  very  significant  or  characteristic  of  the  district.  Much 
of  the  material  does  not  differentiate  the  community  from 
many  other  communities.    The  dominating  materials  of 


228  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

various  districts  differ.  In  selecting  essential  material  the 
significant  or  characteristic  factors  should  be  emphasized. 
The  type  permits  the  proper  evaluation  of  material. 
Many  incidental  factors  of  a  region  are  neglected  to  make 
room  for  the  type,  but  the  type  gives  to  a  region  its  dis- 
tinguishing characteristics.  The  type  will  not  give  a  child 
a  correct  conception  of  a  region,  nor  will  an  equal  emphasis 
of  topics.  Very  few  complete  pictures  of  the  complex  rela- 
tions of  man  to  the  earth  are  secured  by  anyone.  The 
type  enables  the  individual  to  regard  a  region  from  the 
standpoint  of  its  characteristic  or  dominant  contribution 
to  man's  welfare,  particularly  to  the  welfare  of  man  in 
other  communities  through  the  commodities  produced  in 
surplus  quantities. 

Shortcomings.  A  type  study  is  not  misleading  if  it 
describes  an  actual  condition.  A  type  study  becomes 
misleading,  however,  if  pupils  believe  that  exactly  the 
same  conditions  prevail  with  respect  to  all  members  of  the 
class.  It  is  better  to  adhere  to  the  truth,  but  it  only  com- 
plicates a  situation  if  the  teacher  tries  to  note  all  the 
exceptions  to  the  type.  Children  gradually  come  into  a 
more  nearly  complete  knowledge  of  the  truth  as  a  whole. 
Human  beings  always  have  a  more  or  less  imperfect  vision 
of  generalized  truth.  To  secure  even  a  moderately  com- 
plete and  correct  picture  of  the  world  requires  time.  The 
teacher  will  feel  content,  therefore,  if  the  children,  through 
their  type  study,  have  correctly  imaged  a  concrete  situa- 
tion. Conditions  may  or  may  not  be  the  same  elsewhere. 
This  will  be  determined  finally  when  the  children  have 
noted  elsewhere  conditions  illustrating  other  members  of 
the  class. 


TYPE  STUDIES  229 

Advantages.  Charles  McMurry,1  who  has  been  a  dis- 
tinct influence  in  calling  the  attention  of  educators  to  the 
value  of  types,  notes  the  following  advantages : 

( 1 )  A  clear  and  detailed  comprehension  of  a  typical  object 
in  geography  (however  small  this  object  may  be)  is  the  key 
to  a  large  area  of  geographical  knowledge;  (2)  a  type  subject 
is  the  basis  of  a  series  of  comparisons;  (3)  the  number  of 
type  studies  being  few,  much  time  is  available  for  a  lively, 
descriptive,  and  interesting  investigation  into  details;  (4)  one 
of  the  chief  reasons  why  children  are  interested  in  such  a 
study  of  a  type  is  that  it  is  at  every  step  a  study  of  causes ; 
(5)  a  type  study  expands  gradually  to  embrace  a  large  col- 
lection of  geographical  facts;  (6)  the  series  of  types  furnishes 
a  safe  central  line  of  operations;  (7)  physiographic  facts  are 
brought  into  such  close  relation  to  human  needs  as  to  make 
both  of  them  tangible,  realistic,  and  often  picturesque. 

A  liberal  use  of  types  in  teaching  will  go  far  toward 
vitalizing  the  course  of  study.  Type  studies  are  desir- 
able because  they  (1)  tend  to  emphasize  the  more  im- 
portant topics,  (2)  are  economical  in  time,  (3)  permit  a 
detailed  consideration  that  adds  realism  to  the  work, 
(4)  afford  a  secure  foundation  on  which  to  enlarge  one's 
knowledge,  (5)  avoid  the  teaching  of  perfectly  true 
but  meaningless  generalizations,  and  (6)  are  inherently 
valuable. 

Suggestions  for  Further  Study : 

1.  What  constitutes  a  type  study? 

2.  What  is  the  relation  between  a  type  study  and  the  topical 
outline  ? 

3.  Should  type  studies  be  heavily  emphasized  in  a  geography 
course  of  study  ? 

1  Special  Method  in  Geography,  pp.  57-67. 


230  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

4.  Select  a  type  study  from  your  geography  or  a  supplementary 
reader  and  tell  why  you   believe   the  article  selected  is  a   type 

study. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  an  "organizing  center"? 

6.  Develop  in  detail  a  type  study  of  a  city. 

Selected  References : 

Dodge,  R.  E.,  and  Kirchwey,  C.  B.    The  Teaching  of  Geography, 

chap,  xv,  pp.  193-205. 
HOLTZ,  F.  L.     Principles  and   Methods  of  Teaching  Geography, 

chap,  xx,  pp.   254-272;    chap,  xviii,  pp.   222-237;    chap,  xix, 

pp.  238-253. 
McMurky,   Gharles.     Special    Method    in   Geography,   chap,   iv, 

pp.  50-75;  chap,  v,  pp.  76-90;  chap,  vi,  pp.  90-101  ;  chap,  x, 

pp.  i39-l65- 
Ruediger,  W.  C.   "Type  Studies,"  Journal  of  Geography,  Vol.  IV, 

pp.  439-440. 
Sutherland,  William.     The  Teaching  of  Geography,  chap,  x, 

pp.   I37-H5- 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
THE  STORY 

Relation  of  the  story  to  geography.  A  story  can  be 
made  more  appealing  if  the  geographic  setting  is  clearly 
understood.  Much  geographic  material  can  be  presented 
to  children  through  stories.  An  appealing  story  must  have 
action  and  must  represent  characters  and  activities  that 
the  child  can  readily  understand  and  appreciate.  The 
story  may  center  about  the  lives  of  a  group  of  people,  as 
the  Eskimo,  the  Dutch,  or  the  Negro  ;  about  some  impor- 
tant product,  as  coffee,  cotton,  or  rubber;  about  some 
phenomenon  of  nature,  as  a  flood,  a  spring,  or  a  volcano. 
The  child's  attention  may  be  directed  toward  the  chang- 
ing relationships  involved,  and  the  geographic  influences 
may  be  incidentally  introduced  as  a  pertinent  part  of  the 
story.  The  story  "How  the  Bear  was  Caught"  may  be 
told  in  such  a  way  that  the  use  of  trees  by  bees  for  the 
storing  of  honey,  the  nature  of  a  mountain  stream,  and 
the  formation  of  caves  are  revealed. 

A  story  may  be  a  true  account  or  imaginary.  Since 
geography  is  a  study  of  the  actual  relations  that  man  sus- 
tains to  his  physical  environment,  stories  of  actual  events 
are  desirable.  The  imaginary  story,  which  pictures  typi- 
cal relations  of  man  to  nature,  may  be  profitable.  The 
improbable  story  is  of  little  assistance  to  geography, 
although  geography  may  occasionally  be  of  assistance  to 

231 


232  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

the  story-teller.  The  Indian  story  concerning  the  forma- 
tion of  Niagara  Falls  should  have  no  place  in  a  geography 
course.  According  to  the  story  a  huge  monster  was  struck 
by  lightning  while  crossing  the  Niagara  River,  the  dead 
body  forming  a  dam  across  which  the  water  has  flowed 
unto  this  day.  On  the  other  hand,  the  narration  of  Indian 
stories  dealing  with  Niagara  Falls  can  be  more  vividly 
presented  if  the  improbable  stories  are  woven  about  a 
definitely  located  region.  There  are  stories  of  the  tree 
dwellers  and  the  cave  dwellers,  which,  while  unverified, 
represent  probable  happenings. 

Telling  a  good  story.  The  story  may  be  oral  or  written. 
The  oral  developmental  story  is  particularly  adapted  to 
the  lower  grades,  although  throughout  life  this  method  of 
presentation  appeals.  The  teacher  transmits  the  story 
to  the  child  through  the  charm  of  her  personality.  The 
teacher  thoroughly  informs  herself  concerning  the  details 
of  the  story,  although  she  makes  no  attempt  to  memorize 
the  form  of  the  story.  With  her  knowledge  of  the  chil- 
dren's experiences  and  interests  she  enters  into  an  account 
of  the  story  in  an  enthusiastic,  inviting  way.  Occasionally 
she  asks  questions  intended  to  hold  the  interest  by  making 
the  children  feel  that  they  are  contributing.  Questions 
may  be  asked,  in  order  that  the  pupils  may  make  sugges- 
tions or  in  order  that  the  children  unable  to  answer  may 
be  in  a  receptive  attitude  to  receive  the  answer. 

The  teacher,  through  the  story,  attempts  to  secure  and 
retain  the  interest  of  every  child.  She  may  have  pictures, 
miniature  reproductions,  charts,  maps,  and  products,  per- 
haps concealed  in  such  a  way  that  each  article  is  shown 
the  class  at  the  "psychological  moment"  as  the  story  is 


THE  STORY  233 

unfolded.  She  may  make  use  of  construction  materials, 
as  clay  and  sand,  and  she  may  use  the  blackboard  to  illus- 
trate certain  parts  of  the  story.  She  is  interested  in  draw- 
ing on  all  the  materials  of  geography,  both  actual  and 
symbolic,  to  bring  the  details  of  the  story  vividly  before 
the  children. 

Relation  oj  the  story  to  geography  readers.  The  story 
may  be  used  as  a  preliminary  step  leading  to  the  reading 
of  a  similar  account.  Such  a  reading  experience  will  be 
primarily  for  appreciation  and  enjoyment.  The  story  can 
be  read  the  more  easily  because  of  the  knowledge  received 
through  the  oral  account.  The  story  may  be  used  as  a 
basis  for  a  topical  organization  of  the  narrative,  the  class, 
through  the  organization,  attempting  to  recall  the  story. 
After  the  reading  or  telling  of  the  story  the  class  may 
indicate  the  main  divisions,  each  division  may  be  called 
an  act,  and  the  story  may  be  informally  dramatized. 

Story-telling  by  pupils.  Pupils  may  be  given  an  oppor- 
tunity to  tell  stories.  A  geographical  story  may  be  read, 
and  each  pupil  may  attempt  to  tell  the  story  in  an  appeal- 
ing way.  The  Eskimo  type,  a  coffee  plantation,  or  trans- 
portation on  the  Mississippi  may  be  studied,  and  the 
pupils,  with  the  fundamental  geographic  material  in  mind, 
may  attempt  to  write  a  story  depicting  a  day's  work  on  a 
plantation,  a  day's  work  of  an  Eskimo,  or  a  day's  events 
on  a  steamboat.  A  picture  in  which  the  relations  of  man 
to  the  physical  environment  are  prominent — as  a  harvest- 
ing scene,  a  desert  scene  with  a  caravan,  a  snow  and  ice 
scene  with  an  Eskimo  and  a  seal,  an  Indian  tapping  rub- 
ber trees — may  be  used  as  a  basis  for  a  story.  Pictures 
also  are  frequently  used  to  illustrate  stories. 


234  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Nature  stories  versus  fairy  tales.  The  tendency  to 
shift  the  emphasis  in  story-telling  from  fairy  tales  to  the 
wonderful  stories  of  nature  and  the  stories  of  the  achieve- 
ments of  man  increases  the  usefulness  of  story-telling  in 
connection  with  geography. 

Cyril  Bruyn  Andrews,  in  writing  of  the  dangers  of  fairy 
tales,  has  said  : L 

Is  it  not  possible  that  we  grown-up  people  are  also  living 
too  much  in  a  fairy  land  which  we  know  to  be  unreal  ?  Do  we 
not  often  take  a  vicious  delight  in  making  others  believe  things 
that  we  know  to  be  untrue?  Would  not  politics  be  purer, 
religion  more  sincere,  art  more  vital  and  significant  if  grown-up 
people  were  taught  from  their  earliest  childhood  to  worship 
truth  and  sincerity  and  not  to  cultivate  a  formless  ignorant 
mysticism  as  foolish  as  the  most  foolish  fairy  tale,  but  using 
the  garments  and  usurping  the  power  of  serious  fundamental 
fact?  .  .  .  Civilization  seems  to  have  grown  tired  and  often 
prefers  to  imagine  than  to  act,  and  sometimes  as  in  a  final 
stage  of  decay  actually  glories  in  the  unworldliness  of  its 
outlook.  .  .  .  Children,  chiefly  by  their  own  efforts,  have  dis- 
carded fairy  tales  and  wish  more  substantial  outlets  for  their 
imagination. 

Many  of  the  stories  which  have  been  written  for  chil- 
dren are  highly  imaginative  and  improbable.  There  is 
need  for  an  accumulation  of  nature  and  geography  stories, 
entertainingly  written  and  presenting  the  wonders  of  the 
world  and  man's  relations  to  Mother  Nature  in  an  appeal- 
ing manner. 

Place  of  the  story  in  geography.  The  geographical 
story  has  important  educational  possibilities. 

'"The  Danger  of  Fairy  Talcs,"  The  Child  (February,  1920),  Vol.  X, 
pp.   206-208. 


THE  STORY  235 

The  place  of  the  story  in  geography  seems  clear.  Geogra- 
phy should  be,  for  the  child,  a  vicarious  mode  of  travel  through 
time  and  space.  We  wish  the  child  to  see  the  world  as  it  is 
and  as  it  has  been,  as  though  he  were  an  eye-witness  of  its 
events  and  busy  scenes.  It  has  been  a  hard  struggle  to  rescue 
geography  from  the  enumerative,  cataloguing  methods  which 
it  has  employed  in  the  past,  which  put  all  the  stress  upon 
memory  and  none  upon  observation  and  imagination.  The 
school  geography  of  the  past  stands  as  an  example  of  all  that 
is  inartistic  in  education.  It  is  the  direct  opposite  of  the  selec- 
tive way  of  treating  facts,  which  is  essentially  aesthetic.  It 
aimed  to  be  all-inclusive,  cataloguing  everything  without 
unity  of  theme.  Just  so  far  as  connected  narrative  may  be 
made  to  take  the  place  of  detached  and  fragmentary  descrip- 
tion and  classification  is  it  brought  into  line  with  the  methods 
we  are  here  advocating.  Geography  is  largely  the  story  of  the 
world.  It  is  not  an  inventory  of  its  contents.  It  is  better  to 
teach  less  of  facts  and  to  see  that  the  facts  taught  are  precisely 
those  which  give  to  the  child  vivid  pictures  of  the  world  as  it 
is  in  its  relations  to  man's  practical  and  aesthetic  interests. 

Once  the  mind  is  put  to  the  task  of  reading  nature  to  the 
child  as  a  story,  there  will  be  no  lack  of  opportunity.  The 
story  form  and  method  have  a  place  throughout  all  the  nature 
work.  By  the  story  more  than  the  mere  fact  is  carried  to 
the  child's  mind.  He  learns  the  interconnectedness  and  har- 
mony of  facts  in  such  a  way  that  his  inner  nature  is  aroused 
while  his  intellect  is  instructed.  One  may  say  that  the  only 
limit  to  the  use  of  the  story  in  the  nature  subjects  is  likely  to 
be  the  capacity  of  the  teacher  to  organize  the  materials  in  the 
dramatic  and  artistic  form  required.  The  child's  interest  in 
a  good  nature  story  is  very  strong ;  and  the  world  is  full  of 
nature  tales,  some  ready  at  hand,  some  that  must  still  be 
worked  over  by  the  story-teller  himself.1 

1  Emelyn  Newcomb  Partridge,  Story-Telling  in  School  and  Home, 
pp.  103-105. 


236  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

The  organization  of  geographic  stories  about  life  cen- 
ters. The  recasting  of  geographic  material  in  story  form 
involves  the  organization  of  geographic  material  about  life 
centers.  David  Starr  Jordan's  "The  Story  of  a  Salmon" 
has  the  life  of  the  salmon  as  the  organizing  center  ;  Spyri's 
" Heidi"  depicts  the  adjustments  of  the  Swiss  to  their 
environment.  The  pupil  will  not  study  soils,  rainfall,  tem- 
perature, drainage,  and  topography  as  topics  in  a  narra- 
tive that  properly  may  be  called  a  story,  but  he  will  study 
about  "How  the  worn-out  farm  was  built  up,"  "How 
the  swamp  land  was  reclaimed,"  "How  the  truck  gar- 
dener succeeded,"  or  "How  the  miner  saved  his  com- 
rades." Through  appropriate  stories  which  make  a  strong 
appeal  the  geographic  topics  will  incidentally  be  consid- 
ered. Through  the  story  the  pupils  will  work  in  the 
direction  of  a  logical  topical  organization  that  includes 
the  topics  with  which  too  frequently  the  child  begins 
his  study. 

Suggestions  for  Further  Study : 

1.  Select  a  story  in  which  geography  is  necessary  for  an  adequate 
interpretation,  and  give  reasons  for  your  selection. 

2.  Select  a  story  through  which  valuable  geographic  knowledge 

is  taught. 

3.  Compose  a  story  adapted  to  a  lower-grade  geography  class. 

4.  Should  a  geography  story  involve  an  account  of  actual 
happenings  or  an  account  of  imaginary  happenings  ? 

5.  In  oral  story-telling,  in  what  ways  is  the  personality  of  the 
teacher  significant  ? 

6.  What  is  a  geographic  story? 


THE  STORY  237 

Selected  References : 

Adams,  John".    Exposition  and  Illustration  in  Teaching,  chap,  x, 

pp.   250-275,   336-354;  chap,  xv,   pp.   354-391. 
Andrews,  C.  15.    ''The  Danger  of  Fairy  Tales,*'  The  Child (1920), 

pp.   206-209. 
Bailey,  C.  S.   "The  Harvesting,''  Kindergarten  and  First  Grade, 

Vol.  I,  pp.  45<W78- 
Cather,    Katherixe   U.     Educating  by   Story-Telling,  chap,  xv, 

pp.   1 68- 1 78. 
Curtis,  Elxora  W.    The  Dramatic  Instinct  in  Education,  chap,  viii, 

PP-  135-153;  chap,  ix,  pp.  153-176;  chap,  ii,  pp.  5-25. 
Ha  1. 1..  J.  W.  and  A.  C.  K.    The  Question  as  a  Factor  in  Teaching, 

chap.  i.   pp.    1-6. 
Partridge,  G.  E.  and  E.  N.    Story-Telling  in  School  and  Home 

(1913),  pp.  3-39,  71-87,  9S-10S. 
Shedlock,  Marie  L.    Art  of  the  Story-Teller  (1916),  pp.  3-1 61. 
Stewart,  Mary.    "  How  to  Tell  a  Story,"'  School  and  Home  Edu- 
cation (191 9),  Vol.  XXXIX,  pp.  29-33. 
Stookey,    Florence.     "The    Miner,''    Kindergarten    and  First 

Grade,  Vol.  I,  pp.  358-359. 
Wvcke,  Richard  T.    "  Story-Telling,''  Education,  Vol.  XXVIII, 

pp.  76-79. 


CHAPTER   XIX 
DRAMATIZATION 

Relation  of  dramatization  to  geography.  Dramatiza- 
tion as  a  means  of  teaching  geography  is  of  moderate 
importance,  but  as  a  means  of  vitalizing  the  work,  of 
deepening  impressions,  and  of  giving  practice  in  coopera- 
tive endeavor  it  is  very  helpful.  The  dramatic  work  may 
involve  (i)  a  play  that  has  been  written  for  children 
or  (2)  a  play  that  children  plan  for  themselves.  The 
execution  of  a  written  play  emphasizes  imitation  and 
conformity  to  the  suggestions  of  another.  A  written 
play  that  is  rich  in  geographic  content  and  that  gives 
abundant  opportunity  for  forming  correct  social  rela- 
tions is  valuable. 

Geography  plays  produced  by  students.  Dramatization 
in  geography  may  go  a  step  further,  and  the  pupils  them- 
selves may  plan  the  play,  name  the  acts,  distribute  the 
parts,  practice,  and  perform.  The  pupils  draw  upon  their 
experiences,  exercise  their  own  initiative,  and  enter  into 
earnest  discussions  in  order  that  the  group  creative  work 
may  be  a  success.  They  become  more  interested  in  the 
play  because  they  have  assumed  a  certain  responsibility 
in  its  construction.  The  teacher  assists  and  directs  the 
pupils  according  to  need,  for  her  opportunity  is  found  in 
the  arousal  and  direction  of  initiative  along  desirable 
social  lines. 

238 


DRAMATIZATION  239 

Pupils  can  frequently  discover  latent  talent  among 
themselves.  They  should  be  guided  by  a  spirit  of  fair 
play  that  will  permit  each  child  to  participate  according 
to  ability.  The  numerous  problems  that  will  come  up  for 
settlement  challenge  the  ability  of  the  students  to  make 
valuable  suggestions.  The  class  will  follow  the  sugges- 
tions that  make  the  strongest  appeal,  and  temporary 
leadership  will  be  assumed  by  the  one  making  the  adopted 
suggestion.  The  teacher  will  help  the  pupils  to  analyze 
so  that  maximum  possibilities  of  the  socializing  exercise 
can  be  realized. 

Geography  rich  in  dramatization  possibilities.  Geog- 
raphy, dealing  with  the  relations  of  people  to  earth  re- 
sources and  to  the  earth  in  general,  is  particularly  adapted 
to  the  furnishing  of  appropriate  material  for  dramatiza- 
tion work.  A  study  of  human  types,  the  study  of  indus- 
tries, the  study  of  physical  forms, — all  offer  manifold 
opportunities  for  dramatization.  The  modern  emphasis 
upon  interpretative  geography,  which  attempts  to  describe 
and  explain  life  forms  in  action,  increases  the  possibilities 
of  dramatizing  because  of  the  life  situations  presented. 

Relation  of  dramatization  to  other  forms  of  presenta- 
tion. If  the  children  make  up  their  own  play  it  is  obvious 
that  dramatization  will  come  toward  the  close  of  a  detailed 
consideration  of  a  topic.  The  children  must  have  appro- 
priate experiences  on  which  they  can  draw  for  their  play. 
After  a  detailed  study  of  the  Eskimo  type,  for  instance, 
the  children  may  make  a  suggestion,  or  the  teacher  may 
cultivate  the  idea,  that  a  dramatization  of  Eskimo  activi- 
ties would  be  desirable.  Dramatization  in  this  instance 
becomes  primarily  a  means  of  reviewing  the  work  from  a 


240  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

different  standpoint.  The  teacher  participates,  but  throws 
as  much  of  the  responsibility  upon  the  pupils  as  they 
can  readily  shoulder.  The  children  decide  on  the  scenes 
to  be  represented,  select  individuals  for  the  various  parts, 
and  without  elaborate  preparation  stage  their  play.  There 
is  no  formal  memorizing  of  statements,  but  each  character 
thinks  over  the  activities  in  which  he  might  engage,  and 
the  play  takes  on  the  nature  of  an  informal  discussion, 
each  child  acting  his  part  with  the  help  of  simple  ma- 
terials at  hand. 

The  study  may  pertain  to  some  product,  as  wheat. 
After  a  detailed  study  of  wheat  production  the  children 
may  decide  to  engage  in  the  buying  and  selling  of  wheat, 
and  through  their  dramatized  discussion  the  condition  of 
the  crop,  factors  affecting  the  yield,  the  distribution  of 
production,  the  primary  centers,  the  manufacture  of  flour, 
and  other  closely  related  topics  may  be  introduced  in  con- 
nection with  the  exchanges  of  ideas  that  arise  in  the  course 
of  business  transactions.  Traveling  salesmen  may  repre- 
sent various  manufacturing  establishments.  These  sales- 
men may  attempt  to  sell  agricultural  implements  to  groups 
of  farmers,  represented  by  other  children.  The  farmers 
may  represent  different  types  of  agriculture,  and  through 
the  discussions  many  geographic  factors  conditioning 
agriculture  may  be  noted.  Similarly,  other  economic 
activities  —  as  mining,  lumbering,  and  hunting — may  be 
dramatized. 

Professional  versus  educational  dramatization.  No 
elaborate  equipment  is  needed  for  this  work.  Children 
using  their  imaginations  can  secure  equipment  for  any 
emergency.    An  ocean  greyhound,  made  by  putting  two 


DRAMATIZATION  241 

chairs  together,  has  satisfactorily  taken  a  group  of  chil- 
dren across  the  Pacific.  A  cart  has  become  a  jinrikisha, 
a  stick  has  become  a  gun,  a  mirror  has  become  a  piece  of 
ice,  and  white  pieces  of  paper  have  become  snowflakes. 
It  is  preferable  that  the  children  should  secure  their  own 
equipment,  however  crude,  through  their  own  mental  reac- 
tions rather  than  that  it  should  be  provided  ready-made. 
Dramatization  as  an  educational  means  should  not  be  con- 
fused with  the  finished  product  of  the  professional.  The 
actors  of  the  formal  play  perform  their  parts  over  and 
over  again  in  order  that  they  may  reach  mechanical 
perfection.  They  finally  play  their  parts  through  habit 
reactions  to  such  an  extent  that  fresh  mental  activity  is 
practically  eliminated.  The  pupil  is  interested  in  the  play 
and,  according  to  his  interest  and  the  worth-whileness  of 
the  production,  should  be  permitted  to  repeat  the  perform- 
ance as  an  appreciation  exercise.  Through  use  of  the 
finished  product,  the  play,  the  pupil  should  secure  a  veri- 
fication of  his  belief,  while  working  up  the  play,  that  the 
effort  was  worth  while  ;  the  teacher,  however,  is  primarily 
concerned  with  the  relations  sustained,  the  mental  activity 
involved,  the  problems  met,  and  the  content  used  in  mov- 
ing toward  the  desired  goal — the  dramatic  production. 
The  teacher  is  interested  in  the  achievement  as  a  means 
of  giving  the  pupils  a  motive  for  achieving ;  the  pupil  is 
interested  in  the  achievement  as  a  result  which  involves 
values  worth  striving  for. 

Children  instinctively  dramatize.  Whoever  has  watched 
a  group  of  children  at  play  knows  that  the  instinct  to 
dramatize  is  strong.  They  become  self-conscious  only 
when  adults  are  near.    If  an  adult  enters  into  the  spirit 


242  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

of  make-believe  with  them,  however,  they  soon  lose  their 
self-consciousness  in  the  realization  that  they  have  a  pal 
who  thoroughly  enjoys  the  exercise.  The  utilization  of 
dramatization  in  geography,  therefore,  is  merely  making 
use  of  an  instinct  that  is  highly  developed  among  children. 
Unless  the  teacher  sympathetically  recognizes  this  tend- 
ency the  children  will  inhibit  and  in  time  practically 
smother  it.  Lack  of  encouragement  has  caused  many 
pupils  to  inhibit  group  expression  and  to  substitute  there- 
for numerous  words  which  in  too  many  instances  repre- 
sent merely  a  knowledge  of  language  forms. 

Dramatization  and  current  events.  Current  events 
have  been  brought  vividly  before  the  children  through 
dramatization.1 

The  teacher  chose  for  the  first  lesson  the  finding  of  Scott, 
the  hero  of  the  south  pole. 

The  children  were  to  place  themselves  on  the  spot  at  the 
time  of  the  rescue  and  were  to  express  the  emotions  aroused 
in  the  rescue  party  when  they  read  the  part  of  Scott's  diary 
which  told  of  hardships,  disappointments,  and  love  of  human- 
ity. To  read  the  words  of  the  diary  even  once  without  a 
vivid  personal  appreciation  of  the  wonderful  meaning  behind 
them  would  be  to  lose  forever  their  deepest  significance.  For 
that  reason  the  first  expression  was  to  be  in  writing.  On  the 
morning  of  the  experiment  the  words  at  the  end  of  Scott's 
diary  were  put  on  the  board,  and  there  arose  a  discussion  as 
to  the  discovery  of  the  south  pole,  Amundsen's  success,  and 
Scott's  vain  efforts  and  death.  When  interest  in  the  subject 
was  at  a  high  pitch  the  children  were  told  to  choose  the 
moment  at  which  the  rescue  party  came,  then  to  decide  and 

1  Alberta  Walker,  "  Dramatization  and  Current  Events,"  Elementary 
School  Teacher,  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  125-126. 


DRAMATIZATION  243 

write  what  the  different  men  would  do  and  say  at  such  a 
tragic  and  intense  moment.  The  following,  written  by  a  girl 
and  selected  for  brevity,  was  one  result. 


THE  FINDING  OF  SCOTT'S  PARTY 

Scene  :    Inside  of  tent,  not  far  from  south  pole 
Cast  :    Scott,  Wilson,  Bowers,  Wright,  Nelson,  Gran  (a  few 
others) 

(Men  uncover  heads  when  entering) 

Nelson  (steps  inside  tent,  sees  men  in  sleeping  postures, 
turns  pale  at  sight  of  smile  on  Bowers's  face).  God!  he  is  still 
smiling ;  it  almost  gives  me  hope. 

Weight  (comes  in,  goes  toward  Scott,  touches  his  face, 
shivers  slightly).    England's  bravest  men! 

Gran  (comes  in,  followed  by  others,  sees  Bowers,  coughs 
to  hide  his  emotion).  How  splendid  to  die  smiling!  And  no 
word  to  tell  us  of  their  brave  deeds. 

Wright  (looks  thoughtful).  Captain  Scott  must  have  been 
the  last  to  pass  away,  for  the  others  are  securely  wrapped  in 
their  sleeping  bags,  which  he,  of  course,  did,  not  being  in  his 
own  sleeping  bag.  (Moves  Scott's  hand,  sees  diary)  WTiat  is 
this?    Read,  Nelson,  while  I  search  for  other  word. 

(Nelson  takes  diary,  turns  to  first  page) 

Gran  (impatiently).    The  last,  man,  read  the  last! 

Nelson  (turns  pale,  reads).  "We  took  risks;  we  knew 
wc  took  them.  Things  have  come  out  against  us,  and  there- 
fore we  have  no  cause  for  complaint,  but  bow  to  the  will  of 
Providence,  determining  to  do  our  best  to  the  last.  But  if 
we  have  been  willing  to  give  up  our  lives  to  this  enterprise, 
which  is  for  the  glory  of  our  country,  I  appeal  to  our  country- 
men to  see  that  those  who  depend  on  us  are  properly  cared 
for.  Had  we  lived  I  should  have  had  a  tale  to  tell  of  hardi- 
hood, endurance,  and  courage  of  my  companions  which  would 


244  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

have  stirred  the  heart  of  every  Englishman.  These  rough 
notes  and  our  dead  bodies  must  tell  the  tale,  but  surely  a  great, 
rich  country  like  ours  will  see  that  those  who  are  dependent  on 
us  are  properly  provided  for. — R.  Scott." 

Wright.    How  sad !    And  Amundsen  was  there  before  him. 

Gran   {emotionally).   To  seek,  to  strive,  to  find,  and  not 

to  yield.  _ 

Curtain 


Each  pupil,  through  his  attempt  to  reproduce  the  reac- 
tions called  forth  by  the  situation  and  through  the  vig- 
orous imagery  aroused,  secured  a  vivid  impression  of  the 
climax  of  Scott's  journey.  The  dramatic  situation  pic- 
tured constituted  the  principal  organizing  center  about 
which  further  details  of  the  journey  or  even  of  the  polar 
regions  might  be  gathered. 

Value  of  dramatization  in  geography.  Dramatization 
work  is  particularly  desirable  among  the  smaller  children 
and  is  therefore  to  be  emphasized  in  the  lower-grade  work. 
In  the  first  round  of  the  world-whole  it  induces  children 
to  go  into  the  activities  of  other  people  in  a  detailed  fashion 
in  order  that  they  may  reproduce  the  impressions  gained. 
It  can  be  used  successfully  in  the  relational  work  of  the 
upper  grades.  In  fact,  if  we  consider  the  appeal  of 
dramatization  to  adults  and  children,  both  as  actors  and 
as  spectators,  we  can  understand  that  the  instinct  to 
dramatize  is  fundamental. 

Children  may  both  participate  in  and  be  spectators  of 
plays.  When  a  class  is  ready  to  stage  a  play,  other  classes 
may  be  invited  to  see  the  performance.  The  children 
will  directly  benefit  through  observation  and  will  be  en- 
couraged to  engage  in  similar  dramatic  work. 


DRAMATIZATION  245 

The  dramatic  in  geography  helps  to  give  vividness  and 
realism  to  scenes  beyond  direct  observation,  gives  excel- 
lent training  in  oral  expression,  gives  practice  in  social 
relations,  and,  if  the  more  significant  situations  are  drama- 
tized, makes  these  situations  stand  out  in  such  a  clear, 
definite  fashion  as  to  make  them  organizing  centers  for 
many  details.  The  amount  of  geographic  knowledge 
secured  through  dramatization,  however,  is  incidental, 
except  as  the  dramatic  motive  is  held  before  the  child  to 
induce  him  to  study  geographic  topics  in  order  that  he 
may  have  the  necessary  material  for  his  play,  or  except 
as  the  dramatization  adds  vividness  to  the  more  impor- 
tant topics. 

Suggestions  for  Further  Study : 

1.  Is  dramatization  of  value  primarily  in  teaching  geography 
or  in  teaching  desirable  social  relations  through  the  content  of 
geography  ? 

2.  What  difficulties  may  arise  in  the  use  of  dramatization  in 
geography  classes  ? 

3.  What  are  the  relative  advantages  of  informal  and  formal 
dramatization  ? 

4.  Do  children  instinctively  dramatize? 

Selected  References : 

Curtis,  Elxora  W.  ''The  Dramatic  Instinct  in  Education,"  Peda- 
gogical Seminary  (1908),  Vol.  XV,  pp.  299-346. 

Herts.  Alice  M.  "The  Dramatic  Instinct  —  Its  Use  and  Misuse.'' 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  Vol.  XV.  pp.  550-562. 

Flrcell,  Helen  E.  "Children's  Dramatic  Interest  and  how  this 
mav  be  Utilized  in  Education,"'  Elementary  School  Teacher, 
Vol.  VII,  p.   510. 

Walker.  A.  "  Dramatization  and  Current  Events."  Elementary 
School  Teacher  (1916),   pp.    125-131. 


CHAPTER    XX 
THE   PROJECT 

A  school  project.  In  the  preceding  chapters  dealing 
with  the  teaching  of  geography  various  phases  of  the 
teaching  process  have  been  considered.  The  teaching 
process  has  been  dissected  in  order  that  the  whole  may  be 
more  intelligently  grasped.  For  working  purposes  it  would 
be  unfortunate  to  emphasize  the  different  phases  in  isola- 
tion. Attention  to  a  sequence  of  steps  in  teaching  a  lesson 
type  tends  to  formalize  the  work.  Each  teacher  should 
have  sufficient  practice  in  formal  work,  such  as  the 
analysis  and  application  of  a  lesson  type,  so  that  she  will 
understand  the  possibilities  of  the  several  organizations  of 
subject  matter  in  relation  to  the  child.  Fundamentally, 
however,  the  teacher  is  interested  in  studying  the  parts 
in  order  that  she  may  understand  the  whole.  Formality 
seems  necessary  in  order  that  the  teacher  may  become 
master  of  the  informal,  the  natural,  and  the  project 
method  of  teaching.  The  working  out  of  a  project  may 
involve  any  or  all  of  the  lesson  types  discussed,  standing 
out  prominently  or  blended  in  any  proportion.  The 
teacher  is  interested  in  placing  the  child  in  appropriate 
contact  with  a  desirable  environment. 

A  desirable  school  project  is  a  unit  of  activity  that  has 
a  well-defined,  worth-while  objective.    If  the  project  is  to 

be  of  maximum  educational  value,  the  goal  must  appeal 

246 


THE  PROJECT  247 

to  the  child  as  worth  while,  and  he  must  have  an  atti- 
tude that  will  make  him  desire  to  reach  the  goal.  The 
projects  should  be  graded  so  that  the  child  will  develop 
rapidly  and  economically.  In  so  far  as  method  is  con- 
cerned the  success  of  the  project  or  problem  may  be 
measured  by  the  extent  to  which  the  pupil  economically, 
whole-heartedly,  and  purposefully  works  toward  the 
desired   goal. 

Motive.  The  ordinary  individual  considers  a  unit  of 
activity  in  relation  to  the  use  to  which  the  product  may 
be  put.  A  bridge  spanning  the  Mississippi  River  may 
be  completed,  an  area  may  be  drained,  a  river  may  be 
dammed,  the  arid  land  may  be  irrigated,  the  ship  may  be 
built.  In  each  instance  the  promoters  are  not  interested 
in  the  resulting  product  simply  as  a  product;  they  are 
interested  in  the  use  that  can  be  made  of  the  results  of 
their  endeavors.  The  bridge  is  built  in  order  that  the 
river  can  be  crossed ;  the  land  is  drained  in  order  that 
the  health  of  the  community  will  be  safeguarded ;  the 
river  is  dammed  in  order  that  the  energy  secured  may 
furnish  light  and  power;  the  arid  land  is  reclaimed  in 
order  that  agriculture  can  be  established;  and  the  ship 
is  built  to  carry  commodities  and  passengers. 

The  boy  constructs  a  kite,  builds  a  bird  house,  or 
makes  a  tennis  court  in  order  that  he  may  use  the  product. 
The  girl  makes  a  dress,  prepares  the  meal,  or  washes  the 
clothes  with  the  use  of  the  product  in  mind.  In  each  case 
it  is  the  worth-whileness  of  the  goal  that  furnishes  a 
healthful  motive,  and  in  each  case  suggested  the  antic- 
ipated functioning  of  the  completed  product  furnishes 
the  needed  stimulation. 


248  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

A  foreigner  may  attempt  to  master  the  English  lan- 
guage to  facilitate  his  business  and  social  relations; 
women  may  attend  instruction  schools  in  citizenship  in 
order  that  they  may  learn  how  to  vote ;  committeemen 
may  meet  in  a  nominating  convention  in  order  that  they 
may  select  a  candidate  who  may  win  the  election ;  repre- 
sentatives of  nations  may  meet  with  the  view  of  eliminat- 
ing war  or  of  settling  differences. 

The  use  to  which  the  completed  product  may  be  put 
may  be  less  tangible.  The  artist  may  draw  a  picture,  the 
sculptor  may  carve  a  statue,  the  musician  may  compose 
a  masterpiece,  the  author  may  write  a  book.  The  impel- 
ling motive  may  be  the  meeting  of  a  social  need  through 
the  product,  the  desire  for  social  approval,  or  an  attempt 
to  uplift  society.  The  author  may  be  prompted  to  express 
some  definite  idea.  This  inward  impelling,  leading  to  self- 
expression,  furnishes  the  highest  possible  kind  of  motive 
for  accomplishment. 

In  a  practical  way  it  may  be  noted  that  most  individ- 
uals are  prompted  to  reach  a  goal,  to  the  extent  that  they 
value  the  anticipated  results  of  their  activity.  A  desir- 
able aim  of  education  is  to  develop  in  people  an  apprecia- 
tion of  their  activities  in  terms  of  the  direct  usefulness  of 
the  products  to  society.  The  indirect  result,  money  and 
its  purchasing  power,  tends  to  overshadow  the  worth- 
while purpose  that  should  be  found  in  the  work  itself.  In 
the  school,  while  the  indirect  product  of  an  activity,  the 
teacher's  grade,  is  significant,  the  pupil  should  be  led  to 
find  the  actuating  motive  in  the  work  itself.  The  indirect 
goals,  grades  and  money,  should  be  so  carefully  correlated 
with  the  direct  goal  that  the  worker  will  feel  that  if  he 


THE  PROJECT  249 

throws  his  heart  into  the  work  fair  recognition  of  accom- 
plishment will  be  given.  If  the  inherent  worth  of  the 
activity  is  appreciated,  even  though  the  social  recognition 
may  be  meager,  the  pupil  will  have  the  pleasure  which 
comes  from  feeling  that  service  has  been  rendered  or  that 
worth-while  accomplishment  has  been  effected. 

The  child's  interest  in  usable  products.  The  child  pri- 
marily is  interested  in  products  that  he  can  use.  The 
concrete  environment  is  the  best  laboratory  for  him. 
Social  values,  and  particularly  social  values  of  a  some- 
what intangible  nature,  are  acquired  only  gradually,  ex- 
cept as  meaningless  generalizations.  Self-expression  as 
a  means  of  social  betterment  or  as  a  means  of  symboliz- 
ing abstract  ideas  is  dependent  on  and — strongly  de- 
veloped— comes  later  than  the  activities  which  result 
in  direct  usable  achievement.  Our  public  schools  should 
provide  abundantly  for  the  refashioning  of  materials  and 
for  other  types  of  intellectual  activity  in  which  the  pos- 
sibility of  use  is  so  clearly  seen  that  the  pupil  will  work 
with  a  will. 

Illustration  of  project  work.  A  geographic  problem  may 
also  be  a  project  if  it  is  coextensive  with  the  dominat- 
ing unit  of  activity.  In  other  instances  the  project  may 
be  much  more  comprehensive  than  a  problem.  As  the 
result  of  a  discussion  the  pupils  may  desire  to  hold  a  state 
fair  to  acquaint  the  rest  of  the  school,  the  parents,  and 
the  patrons  with  the  resources  of  the  state  (for  example, 
Missouri)  and  their  utilization  and  needed  development. 
The  pupils  will  need  to  accumulate  and  arrange  samples 
of  products,  pictures,  maps,  diagrams,  etc.  Under  proper 
direction    the    pupils   will    not   be   satisfied    with    mere 


250  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

accumulation ;  they  will  want  to  consider  the  underlying 
physical  factors  affecting  distribution.  Numerous  prob- 
lems of  considerable  complexity  may  arise.  A  consider- 
ation of  the  lowlands  of  southeast  Missouri  will  indicate 
a  remarkable  development  during  the  last  few  years,  out 
of  which  may  arise  the  problem  "Account  for  the  wonder- 
ful development  of  southeastern  Missouri  during  the  last 
two  decades."  City  problems  may  arise;  as,  " Account 
for  the  location  and  development  of  St.  Louis."  Trans- 
portation problems  may  arise  ;  as,  "Is  the  development  of 
the  Missouri  River  as  a  transportation  carrier  desirable 
and  practicable  ?  "  Rural  problems  may  arise ;  as,  "  Is  it 
probable  that  dairy  farming  in  the  Ozarks  would  be 
profitable?"  Mining  problems  may  arise;  as,  "Why  is 
Missouri  so  important  in  the  mining  of  lead  and  zinc?" 

The  project  suggested  will  involve  a  wealth  of  ques- 
tions, exercises,  and  problems  bearing  on  the  goal.  The 
pupils  will  inform  themselves  thoroughly  concerning  the 
exhibit  so  that  they  can  discuss  intelligently  the  problems 
connected  therewith.  The  exhibit  or  state  fair  becomes 
an  organizing  center  for  a  wealth  of  details.  When  the 
exhibit  is  held  the  pupils  will  be  in  charge,  prepared  to 
make  it  meaningful  through  their  explanations. 

The  project  exhibit  of  accomplishment  may  be  the 
same  in  appearance  as  numerous  school  exhibits  in  which 
the  pedagogical  emphasis  has  been  placed  on  objective 
results  without  reference  to  the  way  that  the  materials 
were  secured.  The  teacher  is  interested  primarily  in  the  use 
of  the  fair  as  a  means  of  motivating  the  work  by  giving 
the  children  a  definite  goal  of  value  from  their  standpoint. 
In  moving  toward  the  goal  the  pupils  will  encounter  many 


THE  PROJECT  251 

difficulties  the  interpretation  of  which  offers  the  op- 
portunity of  securing  substantial  intellectual  and  moral 
development.  The  educational  possibilities  of  the  exhibit 
are  increased  through  the  placing  of  the  pupils  in  personal 
charge.  The  viewpoint  shifts  from  the  exhibit  as  an  ex- 
hibit to  the  meaning  of  the  exhibit  as  a  major  organizing 
center  to  the  child. 

Projects  on  the  play  level.  Under  the  restrictions  im- 
posed by  schoolroom  conditions  it  has  seemed  necessary 
to  confine  projects  primarily  to  activities  on  a  play  and 
recreational  level.  Teachers  of  the  lower  grades  stimu- 
late the  pupils  to  respond  to  situations  which  involve,  as 
a  means  of  self-expression,  miniature  reproductions  of  the 
principal  buildings,  parks,  and  streets  of  a  city,  and  to 
construct  in  miniature  a  cattle  ranch,  the  Panama  Canal, 
a  dairy  farm,  a  river  front,  etc.  Except  on  the  play  and 
recreational  level  the  tangible  products  of  such  activi- 
ties may  serve  no  useful  economic  purpose,  although 
the  mental  development  incidentally  secured  may  be 
invaluable. 

Irrelevant  problems  as  parts  of  projects.  Through  the 
lack  of  a  well-defined,  worth-while  goal  many  recognized 
units  of  activity  do  not  become  desirable  school  projects. 
The  evolution  of  the  problem  organization  of  geographic 
material  as  an  offspring  of  the  topical  method  has  retarded 
the  movement  toward  an  ideal  use  of  the  project  method. 
The  old  topical  outline  has  been  retained  in  too  many 
instances  as  a  specific,  enslaving  guide.  The  teacher  has 
attempted  to  arouse  interest  in  some  problem  that  will 
involve  every  topic  of  the  outline.  The  pupils  suggest 
different  topics  that  should  be  considered  in  the  solution 


252  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

of  the  problems ;  the  topics  are  then  rearranged ;  and 
presto,  change !  under  the  guise  of  a  problem  attack  the 
old  standard  outline  confronts  the  class.  The  teacher 
similarly  arouses  problems  concerning  other  areas,  the 
solutions  involving  the  completed  standard  outline.  The 
pupils,  stumblingly  at  first,  suggest  the  topics  that  should 
be  considered.  They  finally  comprehend  the  "game"  of 
the  teacher  and  come  to  suggest  the  topical  outline  for 
each  problem.  Both  teacher  and  pupils,  blinded  by  the 
desire  to  include  all  material  that  should  be  studied  in  one 
large  problem,  tend  to  include  much  irrelevant  material 
in  the  solution.  The  class  which  starts  to  work  by  the 
problem  method  may  rapidly  shift  to  the  old  topical  out- 
line basis.  The  class  desires  to  be  up-to-date  and  there- 
fore continues  to  cap  the  topical  outline  with  a  problem. 
If  the  topical  outline  is  of  greater  concern  than  the  prob- 
lem, the  tendency  is  to  shift  from  true  problem-solving  to 
an  endeavor  to  "work  through"  the  topical  outline  under 
the  guise  of  problem-solving.  The  topical  outline  does  not 
necessarily  hold  out  a  concentrated  aim  toward  the 
reaching  of  which  each  topic  is  contributing.  The  pupil's 
aim  may  be  to  complete  a  study  of  the  topics  for  a  given 
region.  The  chances  are  slight,  therefore,  that  a  problem 
degenerating  into  a  topical  outline  discussion  will  be 
genuinely  motivated. 

Shortcomings  of  problems  overcome  through  use  of 
projects.  The  problem  method,  as  generally  used  in  ge- 
ography, has  retained  one  of  the  striking  disadvantages 
of  the  topical  outline ;  that  is,  the  pupil's  inability  to  use 
directly  the  results  of  problem  interpretation.  The  prob- 
lem  method   has   rightly   been   considered    a   means   of 


THE  PROJECT  253 

bringing  together  in  meaningful  relation  many  detached 
topics.  An  attempt  has  been  made  to  place  before  the 
child  introductory  material  adapted  to  his  interests  and 
experiences,  out  of  which  might  arise  a  problem  which 
could  be  used  as  an  organizing  center.  To  this  extent  the 
problem  method  is  to  be  heartily  approved.  The  teacher 
becomes  so  interested  in  the  problem  organization  of  ma- 
terial, however,  that  a  fundamental  defect  subtilely  creeps 
in.  She  tends  to  lose  sight  of  the  need  of  making  the  child 
deeply  conscious  of  the  worth-whileness  of  the  goal.  Ac- 
counting for  the  backwardness  of  Mexico  may  solve  a  men- 
tal query,  but  the  chances  are  that  this  type  of  problem 
will  not  make  a  maximum  appeal.  The  product  of  such  a 
problem  cannot  be  directly  used  by  the  child  in  satisfying 
any  of  his  personal  or  social  ambitions.  The  problem  is 
too  general,  and  its  solution  is  made  up  of  too  many  scat- 
tered elements.  In  striking  contrast,  the  problem  or  proj- 
ect which  involves  a  result  that  can  be  used  in  a  definite 
manner  in  the  social  group,  as  the  state  fair  or  the  con- 
struction in  miniature  of  the  Panama  Canal,  stands  a  bet- 
ter chance  of  calling  forth  whole-hearted,  sustained  effort. 

ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  PROJECTS  OF  A  GEOGRAPHIC 
NATURE 

Illustration  One.  The  pupils  of  a  school  made  an  in- 
vestigation of  a  vital  problem  affecting  community  life, 
using  the  following  steps  : ' 

1.  Introduction.  The  clanger  of  impure  drinking  water 
brought  vividly  before  the  pupils. 

1  Collincs,  Pryor  McBee,  '■"'!-.■  Rural  School  Curriculum,-'  Missouri 
School  Journal  (May,  10:0 ),  Yoi.  XXXYIl,  pp.  2:4-225. 


254  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

2.  Survey  made  to  determine  local  conditions. 

3.  Conditions  ascertained  and  conclusions  reached. 

4.  Conclusions  presented  to  community  to  arouse  a 
community  consciousness  of  the  dangers. 


how  to  protect  the  people  of  the  community 
from  Impure  Drinking  Water 

1.  How  the  people  of  this  community  take  care  of  the  drinking 
water. 

a.  Investigation :    The    students    investigated    the    source, 

location,  and  care  of  the  drinking  water  of  this  com- 
munity, using  the  following  questionnaire  :  ( 1 )  source 
of  the  drinking  water;  (2)  location  with  reference  to 
dwelling  and  barn  etc.;  (3)  if  a  well,  kind  of  top; 
(4)  how  often  cleaned. 

b.  Conference  discussions :    In  conference  with  the  teacher 

the  students  made  a  study  of  the  facts  gathered  and 
discovered  that  78  per  cent  of  the  people  of  this 
community  get  their  drinking  water  from  wells,  10 
per  cent  from  springs,  and  12  per  cent  hauled  the 
water  from  their  neighbors ;  that  80  per  cent  of  the 
drinking  water  was  located  lower  than  the  dwelling  and 
barn;  that  95  per  cent  of  the  wells  had  wooden  tops; 
and  that  only  5  per  cent  of  the  homes  had  cleaned  the 
wells  during  the  past  year.  In  this  connection  they 
discussed  how  impure  drinking  water  causes  typhoid 
fever,  and  noted  that  the  homes  that  had  the  most 
impure  drinking  water — for  instance  those  that 
hauled  the  water — had  had  cases  of  typhoid  in  the 
past.  In  this  discussion  the  question  arose  whether  the 
people  of  this  community  take  the  proper  care  of 
the  drinking  water.  This  suggested  a  study  of  the 
reference  book.-,  and  bulletins  relative  to  the  source  of 


THE  PROJECT  255 

drinking  water,  location,  and  care.  A  graphic  chart 
was  made  illustrating  the  facts  discovered  in  this 
investigation. 

2.  How  to  get  pure  drinking  water  and  how  to  keep  it  pure. 

a.  Investigation :    Here  the  students  investigated  the  loca- 

tion, source,  testing,  kind  of  well  tops,  methods  of 
cleaning  wells,  etc.,  using  as  a  guide  the  following 
questionnaire. 

Questionnaire 

(1)  Location  of  drinking  water  with  reference  to  the 

dwelling,  barn,  and  other  outbuildings. 

(2)  Kind  of  top  for  wells,  pumps,  and  buckets. 

(3)  Drainage  and  frequency  of  cleaning  the  water. 

(4)  Method  of  testing  polluted  drinking  water. 

b.  Conference  discussions:    In    discussing    the    facts    the 

students  concluded  that  the  source  of  drinking  water 
should  be  on  higher  ground  than  the  dwelling,  barn, 
hog  pens,  other  outbuildings,  and  that  it  should  be 
free  from  all  drainage ;  that  the  best  top  for  wells  is 
concrete ;  and  that  the  wells  should  be  cleaned  at 
least  twice  each  year.  In  this  connection  the  group 
made  a  concrete  top  for  the  school  well  in  accordance 
with  the  information  they  had  gathered.  The  investi- 
gation further  revealed  the  fact  that  the  people  of  this 
community  did  not  take  proper  care  of  the  drinking 
water — that  they  were  very,  very  careless  in  this 
matter.  In  order  to  get  this  matter  before  the  people 
of  the  community  the  group  decided  to  present  the 
information  discovered,  in  illustrated  form,  at  one 
of  the  community  meetings. 

3.  Community  meeting.    The  following  program  was  given  at 

one  of  the   night  community  meetings  by  this  group  of 
students : 


256  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

a.  Community  singing  and  phonograph  music. 

b.  Explanation  of  the  graphic  chart  showing  the  source, 

location,    and    care    of    the    drinking    water   of    this 
community. 

c.  Illustrated  talk  by  one  of  the  students,  using  a  set  of 

lantern  slides,  on  "How  to  get  pure  drinking  water 
and  how  to  keep  it  pure." 

d.  Demonstration  :    How  to  test  water  for  its  purity. 

e.  Community  singing  and  phonograph  music. 

Illustration  Two.  In  Miss  Chandor's  School  in  New 
York  City  an  attempt  was  made  to  organize  a  course  of 
study  in  which  the  children  would  have  a  vital  interest 
by  building  it  up  around  the  children's  questions.  An  at- 
tempt was  made  to  arouse  a  community  spirit  in  the 
school  by  securing  the  assistance  of  upper-grade  pupils 
in  answering  the  questions  of  the  pupils  of  the  lower 
grades.1    Numerous  questions  were  raised. 

One  bright  boy  of  seven  asked,  "How  do  we  get  silk?" 
He  continued,  "You  know,  the  kind  that  hair  ribbons  and 
neckties  and  girls'  sashes  are  made  of,  and  your  dress,"  referring 
to  my  taffeta.  The  other  children  seemed  to  think  this  inter- 
esting, so,  being  a  community  interest  with  tremendous  possi- 
bilities in  the  way  of  "leading  on,"  it  was  selected  as  the 
question  to  be  asked  first.  The  young  leader  asked  the  girls  in 
chapel  the  following  morning  if  they  would  be  willing  to  answer 
questions  put  to  them  by  the  primary  grades.  A  senior  replied 
to  this,  saying  that  the  school  would  consider  it  a  privilege  to 
answer  such  questions.  Then  the  question  on  silk  was  asked. 
A  sixth-grade  child  volunteered  an  explanation,  but  failed  to 
satisfy  through  lack  of  preparation. 

]  Edith  A.  Linke,  "An  Experiment  in  Teaching  in  Response  to  Chil- 
dren's Questions,"  Teachers  College  Record  (January,  1920),  Vol.  XXI, 
pp.  56-S8. 


THE  PROJECT  257 

In  the  third-grade  handwork  class  we  discussed  the  ques- 
tion and  answer,  and  the  third  grade  decided  that  the  question 
had  not  been  fully  answered.  One  child  decided  to  look  it  up 
in  the  "Book  of  Knowledge."  She  did  so,  consulting  the 
science  teacher  for  further  information.  After  writing  a  short 
paper,  which  she  copied  voluntarily  three  times  in  order  to 
make  it  legible,  she  submitted  it  to  the  English  teacher  for 
correction  and  then  read  it  before  the  school.  It  was  entitled 
"How  we  get  Silk.''  In  connection  with  it,  she  explained  a 
silkworm  exhibit  procured  from  the  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory by  an  eighth-grade  girl.  The  teacher  of  mathematics 
contributed  some  raw  silk  from  the  yellow  cocoon,  and  after- 
wards in  their  own  classroom  the  children  examined  it,  heard 
about  the  "combing"  process,  and  with  hand  lenses  studied 
the  exhibit  while  the  science  teacher  told  them  many  interest- 
ing facts.  The  children  in  the  first  grade  were  overjoyed  when 
they  deciphered  the  labels.  They  attempted  to  reel  the  silk, 
and  later  begged  for  strands  to  take  home  to  show  their 
parents. 

The  question  was  then  raised  by  the  primary  children.  How 
is  raw  silk  changed  into  the  material  that  we  know  as  silk? 
The  third-year  class  volunteered  to  find  out.  One  day  the 
entire  third  grade  gave  before  the  school  a  talk  on  the  manu- 
facture of  silk.  It  began  with  the  silkworm  and  ended  with 
the  dyeing  process  and  an  exhibit  of  the  finished  product. 
During  the  exposition  a  hand  loom  was  shown  and  later 
minutely  explained  to  the  children  in  their  classroom.  Of 
course  they  wanted  to  use  it.  As  there  was  no  other  available 
material  they  used  raffia  and  found  themselves  making  matting. 
Then  they  demanded  a  doll  house  for  the  rugs.  We  decided  to 
have  one  and  to  make  everything  in  it  for  the  Children's  Hos- 
pital. One  loom,  of  course,  did  not  suffice.  They  begged  for 
more.  We  procured  the  simplest  type  of  loom  with  a  heddle, 
and  all  of  the  first-grade  children  began  to  make  rugs.  First 
they  designed  them,  then  compared  patterns,  and  then  wove 


258  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

them.  The  second  grade  wished  another  loom  like  the  model, 
as  it  went  faster,  so  one  of  their  number  decided  to  copy  the 
more  complicated  type.  We  compared  looms  and  found  the 
one  first  used  by  the  Indians. 

One  day,  while  I  was  setting  up  the  warp,  the  children 
divided  into  groups  to  assist  in  the  process  in  order  that  it 
might  be  finished  before  they  went  home.  We  accomplished 
the  work  in  a  third  of  the  time  it  would  otherwise  have  taken. 
The  result  is  that  when  working  on  the  loom  three  or  four 
children  run  it,  one  holding  the  loom  firmly,  one  using  the 
heddle,  while  the  third  and  fourth  weave.  This  led  one  little 
girl  to  stand  the  loom  on  end  one  day  and  say  that  she  thought 
if  it  were  fastened  to  a  box  in  that  position  it  need  not  be  held. 
This,  of  course,  was  just  what  was  needed  to  set  off  a  talk  on 
factory  machinery  in  that  position. 

Illustration  Three.  In  the  Wyman  School,  St.  Louis, 
Missouri,  the  curriculum  of  the  elementary  school  was 
centered  about  a  world's  fair.  Each  class  had  a  definite 
objective  toward  which  to  work.  A  community  spirit 
in  the  school  was  emphasized  through  the  common 
goal  toward  which  the  whole  school  was  moving.  The 
principal,  Professor  John  J.  Maddox,  discussed  with  the 
teachers  the  purpose  of  the  fair.  He  advised  each  teacher 
to  make  a  selection  of  a  unit  of  work  that  seemed  best  for 
her  group.  The  teacher  was  to  emphasize  the  educative 
process,  and  the  exhibit  was  to  grow  out  of  the  interests  of 
the  children.  The  teachers  were  enthusiastic.  They  dis- 
cussed the  possibility  of  holding  a  world's  fair,  and  the 
classes  eagerly  welcomed  the  suggestion.  One  advantage 
of  the  goal  toward  which  the  whole  school  was  moving 
was  its  flexibility.  Each  teacher  had  an  opportunity  to 
develop  the  type  of  work  fitted  to  her  pupils  and  at  the 


THE  PROJECT  259 

same  time  to  do  work  of  importance  in  helping  to  realize 
the  common  aim.  The  students  at  the  Harris  Teachers 
College  and  the  fathers,  mothers,  and  patrons  of  the 
school  were  to  be  invited  to  attend  the  fair.  The  materials 
to  be  exhibited  at  the  world's  fair  were  worked  out  in- 
cidentally in  connection  with  the  life  situations  studied. 
While  the  pupils  looked  upon  the  world's  fair  as  the  con- 
trolling motive,  the  teachers  were  particularly  concerned 
in  the  questions  and  problems  leading  to  and  coming  from 
the  expression  work.  The  manual-training  room  became 
a  laboratory  shop  in  which  the  pupils  attempted  to  ex- 
press their  ideas.  Numerous  articles  were  made.  Once 
a  cursory  glance  through  the  shop  revealed  different  pupils 
at  work  making  a  miniature  reproduction  of  the  first 
printing  press,  the  first  reaper,  an  aeroplane,  a  bird  house, 
a  log  cabin,  a  model  of  a  flatboat,  a  stockade,  and  a 
dining-room  set.  The  walls  and  floors  of  the  rooms  and 
halls  were  used  in  placing  the  exhibits  of  the  various 
groups.  The  work  of  the  lower  grades  had  been  built 
about  type  studies,  the  intermediate  grades  about  regional 
geography,  and  the  upper  grades  about  situations  intended 
to  develop  a  national  and  international  viewpoint. 

The  kindergarten  and  first-grade  work  was  centered 
about  the  home.  Pictures  to  illustrate  the  uses  of  the 
various  rooms  of  the  home  and  the  work  of  various  mem- 
bers of  the  family  were  placed  on  charts.  The  children 
had  represented  their  own  conceptions  through  crude 
drawings  and  had  constructed  of  boxes  a  two-story  house. 
By  way  of  contrasting  our  homes  with  those  of  less  de- 
veloped people,  a  first-grade  class  had  made  a  study  of 
Indian  life,  and  the  children  informally  dramatized  Indian 


260  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

life,  making  use  of  the  various  materials  they  had  con- 
structed. A  second-grade  class  studied  about  the  people 
of  Holland,  and  the  children  had  constructed  a  Dutch 
village  and  had  drawn  pictures  representing  scenes  in  Hol- 
land. Another  class  had  constructed  of  cardboard  a  minia- 
ture reproduction  of  the  school  building  and  had  placed 
in  proper  position  miniature  reproductions  of  the  impor- 
tant places  that  they  had  directly  observed  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  the  school.  The  places  represented 
included  a  fire  department,  a  dairy  plant,  a  park,  a  florist's 
shop,  a  special  school,  and  their  own  homes.  A  third-grade 
class  had  constructed  a  miniature  floor  representation  of 
the  city  of  St.  Louis,  locating  the  more  important  land- 
marks and  the  Mississippi  River.  Another  class  had  con- 
structed a  miniature  representation  of  the  state  capital, 
Jefferson  City,  on  the  bluffs  of  the  Missouri  River.  A 
fourth-grade  class  had  constructed  a  miniature  farm, 
properly  divided  for  the  various  crops.  Corn,  wheat,  and 
oats  were  planted,  and  the  various  buildings  were  con- 
structed of  cardboard.  Another  class  had  made  a  special 
study  of  a  factory  and  had  learned  in  detail  the  processes 
involved  in  making  margarine.  The  exhibits  in  the  inter- 
mediate and  upper  grades,  related  to  regional  and  world 
geography,  were  not  so  directly  related  to  the  local  area. 
Among  these  exhibits  were  a  miniature  representation, 
with  the  use  of  clay  and  water,  of  New  York  Harbor,  a 
model  of  the  Panama  Canal,  a  cattle  ranch,  and  displays 
of  various  economic  products,  as  cork,  wheat,  and  silk. 
Charts  and  diagrams  were  an  important  part  of  the  upper- 
grade  exhibits.  The  pupils,  who  were  in  charge,  eagerly 
discussed  and  explained  the  various  exhibits.    Emphasis 


THE  PROJECT  261 

was  not  placed  on  the  exhibit  as  an  exhibit,  but  on  the 
exhibit  in  relation  to  the  activities  of  the  children. 

Geography  the  center  for  the  organization  of  school 
work  on  a  project  basis.  All  the  illustrations  cited  are 
earnest  attempts  to  direct  the  experiences  of  children  into 
socially  valuable  channels,  the  content  being  organized  in 
life  situations  within  their  comprehension  and  interests. 
To  an  increasing  extent  the  geography  work  will  be  taught 
through  problems  and  projects  which  appeal  to  the  child 
on  his  level  of  development,  which  are  graded,  and  which 
are  socially  and  individually  desirable.  Through  desir- 
able school  projects,  adequately  motivated  and  involving 
worth-while  goals,  educational  leaders  may  hope  materi- 
ally to  expedite  the  development  of  the  child.  Because  of 
the  emphasis  that  geography  has  always  placed  on  present 
situations,  this  subject  naturally  becomes  the  nucleus  for 
the  organization  of  all  school  work  on  a  project  basis.  In 
the  development  of  the  world's  fair  project  various  sub- 
jects contributed,  but  the  fundamental  subject  was 
geography. 

Suggestions  for  Further  Study  : 

1.  What  is  a  project  as  defined  by  various  educators?  Which 
conception  do  you  prefer  ?     Explain. 

2.  What  is  the  relation  of  problems  and  projects? 

3.  Is  it  possible  to  build  up  a  course  of  study  in  geography 
altogether  through  projects  ? 

4.  Do  projects  tend  to  emphasize  the  boundary  lines  between 
subjects  or  to  break  down  the  boundary  lines? 

5.  Make  a  list  of  projects  that  you  believe  can  be  successfully 
used  in  the  geography  classes. 

6.  Elaborate  in  detail  a  project  for  a  specific  grade. 


262  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Selected  References : 

Branom,  M.  E.    The  Project  Method  in  Education,  p.  278. 
Burbank,  Luther.     Training  of  the  Human  Plant  (The  Century 

Company,  1907),  p.  99. 
Collings,    P.   M.    "  Rural   School   Curriculum,"  Missouri  School 

Journal  (1920),  Vol.   XXXVII,  pp.    170-174,   222-227. 
Courtis,  S.  A.    "  Teaching  through  the  Use  of  Projects,"  Teachers 

College  Record  (1920),  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  139-149. 
Hotchkiss,  Caroline  W.    "  Pageant  of  the  Earth,"  Journal  of 

Geography  ( 1 9 1 9),  Vol.  XVIII,  pp.    1 71  —  178. 
Kilpatrick,  William  H.    "  The  Project  Method,"  Teachers  Col- 
lege Record,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  319-335. 
Krackowizer,  Alice  M.    Projects  in  the  Primary  Grades,  p.  221. 
Krackowizer,  Alice  M.    "  Social  Enterprises  of  Little  Children," 

Kindergarten  and  First  Grade  (1920),  Vol.  V,  pp.  142-145. 
Lixke,  Edith  A.    "  An  Experiment  in  Teaching  in  Response  to 

Children's    Questions,"    Teachers    College   Record  (1920),   Vol. 

XXI,  pp.   55-67. 
McMurry,  Charles  A.    Teaching  by  Projects  (1920),  p.  254. 
Michel,  Stella.    "  Fourth-Grade  Project  Problem  in  Geography," 

Missouri  School  Journal  (1920),  Vol.  XXXVII,  pp.  10-11. 
STORM,  Grace.    "A  Map  of  the  United  States,"  Elementary  School 

'Teacher,  Vol.  XV,  pp.  29-40. 
Sweeney,  Ella  L.  "  Problem-Project  Method  in  the  Primary  Grade," 

Kindergarten  and  First  Grade  (1920),  Vol.  V,  pp.  177-180. 
Towne,  Mary  E.    "  Developing  a  Class  Project,"  Industrial-Arts 

Magazine  (1920),  Vol.  IX,  pp.  442-445. 
Von  Hope,  George  D.   "The  Development  of  a  Project,"  Teachers 

College  Record,  Vol.  XVII,  pp.  240-246. 
Whitcomb,  Fred  C.    "  General   Project   Method  of  Teaching  the 

Industrial    Arts,"   Industrial-Arts  Magazine  (1920),   Vol.    IX, 

pp.  131-136. 


PART  SIX.    TESTS  AND  SCALES 


CHAPTER  XXI 

MEASURING  RESULTS 

The  viewpoint.  The  teaching  of  geography  involves 
(i)  the  setting  up  of  criteria  as  a  means  of  selecting  sub- 
ject matter  and  organizing  it  into  a  course  of  study, 
(2)  the  setting  up  of  well-defined  aims  which  it  is  hoped 
to  realize  through  the  subject  matter  properly  related  to 
the  child,  (3)  the  organization  of  the  class  and  the  use  of 
the  materials  of  the  subject  in  such  a  way  that  these  aims 
may  be  realized,  (4)  testing  to  ascertain  whether  the  aims 
have  been  realized,  and  (5)  the  devising  of  means  to  over- 
come determined  failures  of  instruction. 

The  teacher  of  geography  may  test  for  (1)  facts, 
(2)  interpretation  of  facts,  (3)  ability  to  use  geography 
content,  and  (4)  ideals,  attitudes,  habits,  tastes,  and 
skills.  Factual  testing  can  be  more  readily  accomplished, 
because  of  the  definite  response  (easily  measured)  re- 
quired. Much  of  the  emphasis  in  teaching  has  been 
placed  on  factual  geography.  At  present  interpretative 
geography,  usable  geography,  and  geographic  experi- 
ences which  will  assist  in  giving  the  pupil  a  desirable 
world-wide  outlook  are  being  increasingly  emphasized. 
In  part  because  of  the  recency  of  emphasis,  in  part  be- 
cause of  the  difficulties  involved  in  measuring  the  product, 
most  of  the  testing  has  been  confined  to  factual  testing. 
Teachers  may  desire  to  teach  more  than  mere  facts,  but 

26; 


266  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

if  the  tests  devised  to  measure  accomplishment  are  pri- 
marily factual,  the  influence  of  the  measuring  exercises 
will  be  greater  than  the  possibilities  revealed  in  an  analysis 
of  geographic  aims.  The  more  significant  phases  of  geog- 
raphy, based  on  the  factual,  will  not  be  properly  empha- 
sized unless  appropriate  tests  are  devised. 

Geography  fundamentally  deals  with  the  location  of 
places  and  interpretations  related  thereto.  The  mere 
testing  of  place  geography,  however,  reveals  a  very  lim- 
ited amount  of  the  modern  geographic  knowledge  de- 
manded of  a  pupil.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  place  geography 
may  be  taught  solely  by  means  of  drills,  or  it  may  be 
taught  incidentally  in  connection  with  the  solution  of 
geographic  problems.  The  place  tests,  since  they  do  not 
indicate  whether  relations  were  developed  or  merely  taken 
for  granted,  manifestly  do  not  measure  the  most  vital 
part  of  geography. 

Criteria  suggested  for  selection  of  content.  Professor 
George  J.  Miller1  has  suggested  the  following  criteria 
for  determining  what  subject  matter  shall  be  included 
in  grade  geography. 

NATURAL  ENVIRONMENT 

i.  Is  this  particular  element  of  the  environment  essential 
to  an  understanding  of  other  elements  of  the  environment  and 
responses  in  the  succeeding  parts  of  the  course  ? 

2.  Is  this  particular  element  of  vital  importance  for  the 
child  to  know  in  after  life,  even  though  it  is  not  provided  for 
in  the  course  of  study  ? 

^'Essentials  of  Modern  Geography  and  Criteria  for  their  Determina- 
tion," Journal  oj  Geography  (January,  1915),  Vol.  XIII,  pp.  134-135. 


MEASURING  RESULTS  267 

LIFE  RESPONSE 

1.  Is  this  particular  subject  matter  concerning  plant  and 
animal  life  clearly  a  response  to  the  natural  environment  and 
within  the  comprehension  of  the  child  ? 

2.  Are  the  human  responses,  especially  human  activities, 
clearly  responses  to  the  natural  environment  and  within  the 
comprehension   of   the  child? 

3.  Are  these  life  responses  clearly  essential  for  a  child 
to  know  in  daily  life,  even  though  not  provided  for  in  the 
course  of  study  ? 

Boston's  attempts  to  ascertain  results.  In  setting  up 
tests  for  the  pupils  at  the  close  of  their  grade  work  it 
was  believed  that  the  pupil  should  gain,  as  a  result  of  his 
study  of  geography,1 

1.  An  abiding  interest  in  the  different  peoples  of  the  world, 
—  their  industries,  their  achievements,  and  their  relations  to 
ourselves. 

2.  A  mastery  of  geographic  facts  and  principles  sufficient 
to  enable  him  to  explain 

a.  The  growth  of  the  leading  cities  of  a  region. 

b.  The  development  of  important  industries. 

c.  The  dependence  of  one  part  of  the  world  upon  another. 

3.  A  breadth  of  mind  which  will  lead  to  a  sympathetic 
understanding  of  races  and  nations  other  than  his  own. 

4.  A  working  knowledge  of  the  subject  by  a  thorough 
training  in  the  use  of  maps,  texts,  and  reference  books,  so 
that  he  can  work  out  new  problems  independently. 

The  following  set  of  questions  was  included  in  a  com- 
pletion test  for  the  grades  : 

■School  Document  No.  14  (1015K  Boston  Public  Schools.  Con- 
ducted under  the  supervision  of  Professor  L.  O.  Packard. 


268 


THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


Cities 

Products 

Minneapolis 

Pittsburgh 

Lowell 

New  Orleans 

Duluth 

Galveston 

Lynn 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  UNITED  STATES 

(An  outline  map  of  the  United  States  was  printed  at  the  head  of  the 

questions) 

i .  Locate  on  the  map  the  cities  named  at  the  right : 

2.  In  the  column  marked 
"Products"  write  opposite 
the  name  of  each  city  the 
name  of  a  product  for  which 
the  city  is  noted. 

3.  Give  reasons  for  the 
growth  of  Minneapolis. 

4.  Below  is  given  a  list  of  articles  which  we  use  in  our 
homes.  Write  below  each  word  the  name  of  the  state  in 
which  that  article  is  produced  in  large  quantities. 

cotton       oranges       cane  sugar       rice       coal       iron 

5.  Write  on  the  map  the  name  of  each  state  which  you 
have  just  written  in  answering  question  4. 

6.  Why  do  the  states  just  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
receive  less  rain  than  Massachusetts? 

7.  Explain  the  way  in  which  the  flood  plains  of  the 
Mississippi  River  have  been  formed. 

8.  Why  are  these  flood  plains  good  for  agriculture? 

9.  Locate  New  York  City  on  the  map.  Locate  San  Fran- 
cisco on  the  map. 

10.  Give  reasons  why  the  commerce  of  San  Francisco  is 
not  so  important  as  that  of  New  York  City. 

Place  geography  has  been  happily  blended  with  inter- 
pretative geography  in  the  above  set  of  questions. 

Place-geography  tests.  Professor  Whitbeck,1  in  discuss- 
ing the  results  to  be  expected  from  a  school  course  in 

1  R.  H.  Whitbeck,  "Results  to  be  expected  from  a  School  Course  in 
Geography,"  Journal  of  Geography   (April,  1905),  Vol.  IV,  pp.  149-152. 


MEASURING  RESULTS  269 

geography,  divides  his  discussion  into  (1)  home  geogra- 
phy, (2)  the  world  as  a  whole,  (3)  knowledge  of  location, 
(4)  facts  of  physical  geography,  (5)  facts  of  commercial 
geography,  and  (6)  general  facts.  Under  knowledge  of 
location  Professor  Whitbeck  indicates  in  a  general  way 
the  classes  of  place  names  that  should  be  familiar,  such 
as  important  political  units,  the  more  important  rivers, 
islands,  mountains,  capes,  political  colonies,  and  cities  of 
the  world. 

Minimal  place  material  has  been  selected  (1)  through 
the  individual  judgment  of  a  teacher  or  geography  special- 
ist, (2)  through  the  collective  judgment  of  a  number  of 
teachers  or  geography  specialists,  (3)  through  a  compari- 
son of  the  relative  emphasis  given  to  certain  materials  in 
textbooks  of  geography,  and  (4)  through  a  study  of  the 
frequency  with  which  place  names  occur  in  newspapers 
and  magazines. 

The  individual-judgment  method  was  used  by  Mr.  T. 
E.  Thompson1  in  his  exercises  in  minimal  essentials  and 
by  Superintendent  Witham'-  in  establishing  "a  minimum 
standard  for  measuring  geography"  in  the  sixth  grade 
through  a  list  of  fifty-five  questions  to  be  answered  in 
forty-five  minutes. 

The  textbook  method  applied  by  Dr.  W.  C.  Bagley3 
to  the  content  of  history  could  be  used  similarly  with 
geography.  This  method  is  in  effect,  however,  substan- 
tially the  same  as  the  combined  judgment  of  experts.    A 

1  "Minimum    Essentials   in    Geography. 

-  Ernest  C.  Witham,  "A  Minimum  Standard  for  Measuring  Geog- 
raphy." American  School  Board  Journal  (January,  1Q15),  Vol.  I,  p.  13. 

:5"The  Content  of  American  History,"  Bulletin  No.  16,  University  of 
Illinois  School  of  Education. 


270  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

minimal  list  of  places  on  the  basis  of  frequency  of  mention 
in  current  literature  was  reported  by  Dr.  Bagley.1  The 
results  of  this  investigation  were  inconclusive,  but  indi- 
cated that  such  a  method,  if  taken  alone,  would  be 
unsatisfactory  as  the  basis  for  the  selection  of  minimal 
essentials. 

The  collective-judgment  method  was  followed  by  a 
group  of  teachers  of  Springfield,  Illinois,  working  under 
the  direction  of  Professor  D.  C.  Ridgley-  with  respect  to 
the  fourth-grade  and  fifth-grade  work.  As  a  result  the 
following  number  of  place  names  was  recommended 
and  adopted  for  these  grades  in  the  Springfield  schools : 
World,  30;  North  America,  27;  United  States,  143; 
South  America,  35;  Asia,  39;  Africa,  19;  and  Aus- 
tralia, 11. 

A  geography  scale.  In  the  tool  subjects — reading, 
writing,  and  arithmetic — scales  have  been  devised  which 
can  be  used  by  any  individual  in  determining  his  stand- 
ing. The  same  scale  can  be  used  by  children  of  the 
several  grades,  a  higher  per  cent  being  required  in  the 
upper  grades  than  in  the  lower.  A  tentative  attempt  to 
make  such  a  scale  (the  Hahn-Lackey  scale)  in  measuring 
ability  in  geography  has  been  made."'  Through  a  compara- 
tive study  of  six  of  the  modern  textbooks  in  geography 
about  six  hundred  questions  and  exercises,  emphasizing 

1  "The  Determination  of  Minimum  Essentials  in  Elementary  Geog- 
raphy and  History,"  Fourteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for 
the  Study   of  Education,  Part  I.  pp.   131-147. 

-"The  Teaching  of  Place  Geography,"  Journal  of  Geography  (Sep- 
tember,   Kyi2).  Vol.  XT,  pp.    13-16. 

::  E.  E.  Lackey,  "Measuring  the  Ability  of  Children  in  Geography," 
Journal  0)  Geography   (January,  1918),  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  186-187. 


MEASURING  RESULTS  271 

both  the  memory  and  the  rational  phases  of  geography, 
were  secured.  The  questions  and  exercises  were  given  to 
1696  students,  and  on  the  basis  of  difficulty  were  grouped 
in  "steps.''  There  are  twenty-five  steps,  designated  by 
letters  of  the  alphabet. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES  OF  "STEP  P"  OF  THE  SCALE 

79.  Name  two  large  rivers  of  South  America. 

80.  What  two  important  products  are  brought  to  us  from 
Brazil  ? 

88.  How  can  you  get  from  New  York  to  London,  and  in 
what  direction  would  you  go? 

89.  How  can  steamboats  go  from  New  York  to  San 
Francisco  by  the  shortest  route  ? 

100.  Name  the  chief  occupation  of  the  people  of  Australia. 
105.  Give  two  reasons  why  mountainous  regions  are  not 
good  for  farming. 

28.  How  can  we  tell  how  big  a  country  is  by  studying  a 
map  ? 

10.  How  long  does  it  take  the  earth  to  go  around  the  sun? 

67.  Give  the  principal  reason  why  such  dense  forests  grow 
along  the  Amazon. 

70.  Which  part  of  the  United  States  is  most  important  for 
manufacturing  and  which  for  agriculture? 

74.  Where  may  snow  be  found  in  the  hot  belt  near  the 
equator  ? 

77.  Why  is  there  so  little  rainfall  in  the  Great  Basin  of  the 
United   States? 

78.  Name  one  way  in  which  the  Panama  Canal  will  be  an 
advantage  to  the  United  States  in  its  trade  with  South  America. 

81.  During  what  months  does  Argentina  have  winter? 

82.  In  what  industry  or  kind  of  work  are  most  of  the 
people  of  England  engaged  ? 

51.  Why  do  so  few  people  live  in  deserts? 


272  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

According  to  the  scale  an  average  fourth-grade  pupil  ought 
to  make  34%  on  the  questions  and  exercises  of  this  step  or 
any  part  of  it,  a  fifth-grade  pupil  ought  to  make  50%,  a  sixth- 
grade  pupil  58%,  and  a  seventh-grade  or  eighth-grade  pupil 

The  authors  suggest  that  the  steps  can  be  used  in  the 
following  ways : 

1.  To  measure  a  pupil's  ability  in  geography  for  his 
promotion  or  classification. 

2.  To  measure  the  ability  of  a  class  as  a  whole  for 
comparison  with  the  standard  given  in  the  scale. 

3.  To  compare  the  progress  of  a  year's  work  in  geog- 
raphy for  comparison  with  the  normal  progress  shown 
by  the  scale. 

4.  To  measure  the  balance  between  the  different  phases 
of  geography  work. 

5.  To  measure  the  merit  of  different  methods  of  instruc- 
tion and  of  school  organization. 

Determining  minimal  essentials  as  a  basis  for  testing. 
The  aims  of  geography  teaching  are  to  impart  the  more 
important  facts  of  conventional  or  practical  value,  to 
secure  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  ability  to  interpret  properly 
the  geographic  factors  that  enter  into  problems  of  timely 
moment,  and  to  develop  an  appreciation  of  the  importance 
of  the  United  States  intrinsically  and  in  its  relational 
aspects  to  the  world  as  a  whole.  The  realization  of  these 
aims  requires  a  general  knowledge  of  (1)  the  relative 
location  of  the  large  land  and  water  bodies,  (2)  the  loca- 
tion of  the  more  important  countries  of  the  world,  (3)  the 
location  of  the  more  important  cities  of  the  world,  (4)  the 
physical   conditions   of   the   more   important   countries, 


MEASURING  RESULTS  273 

(5)  the  occupations  of  the  people  and  the  conditions  of 
transportation,  (6)  our  commercial  relations  with  these 
countries,  and  (7)  the  fundamental  relationships  between 
the  physical  factors  and  human  activities. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  more  important  phases  of  geog- 
raphy be  recognized  to  insure  that  the  testing  shall 
adequately  emphasize  the  essentials.  In  determining  a 
minimal  essential  list  of  countries  of  the  world  the  follow- 
ing standards  were  employed  :  ( 1 )  the  area  of  the  country 
in  square  miles,  (2)  population,  (3)  total  value  of  im- 
ports, (4)  total  value  of  imports  from  the  United  States, 
(5)  total  value  of  exports,  and  (6)  total  value  of  exports 
to  the  United  States.  These  criteria  not  only  offer  ob- 
jective data  of  great  significance  in  the  study  of  a  par- 
ticular country  but  also  afford  a  means  of  measuring  the 
relationships  of  the  United  States  to  each  country. 

The  statistical  data  for  each  of  the  above  criteria  were 
secured  from  the  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States 
( 1 91 5),  in  which  reports  covering  the  latest  year  for  which 
statistics  were  available,  for  the  fifty-two  more  important 
countries  of  the  world,  were  given.  The  countries  were 
ranked  according  to  their  relative  importance  with  respect 
to  each  of  the  six  criteria  and  have  been  numbered  accord- 
ingly in  Table  I,  p.  276. 

The  fifty-two  countries  of  Table  I  were  then  divided 
into  quintiles  under  each  of  the  six  criteria  previously 
discussed,  and  values  were  assigned  to  rank  in  the  various 
quintiles  as  follows:  (1)  rank  in  the  first  quintile  in  each 
criterion  received  a  score  of  5  points;  (2)  rank  in  the 
second  quintile,  a  score  of  4  points;  (3)  rank  in  the  third 
quintile,  a  score  of  3   points;    (4)    rank  in  the  fourth 


274  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

quintile,  a  score  of  2  points;  and  (5)  rank  in  the  last 
quintile,  a  score  of  1  point.  The  total  score  thus  received 
by  a  country  would  serve  as  an  index  of  the  relative 
importance  of  that  country  among  the  countries  of  the 
world  in  area,  population,  and  import  and  export  trade, 
and  of  its  relative  importance  to  the  United  States  in 
import  and  export  trade. 

Table  II  indicates  the  total  score  of  each  country  by  this 
method.  These  scores  range  from  30  points  in  the  case 
of  the  United  States — a  perfect  score  because  it  is  the 
home  country  of  the  child — to  6  points  for  Liberia.  An 
examination  of  the  scores  clearly  indicates  the  greater  im- 
portance of  certain  countries  and  suggests  the  desirability 
of  establishing  a  line  of  demarcation  between  the  impor- 
tant and  less  important  countries.  The  placement  of  this 
line  is  somewhat  arbitrary,  and,  through  experimental  evi- 
dence or  radical  changes  in  statistical  data,  some  readjust- 
ment may  be  desirable.  The  score  of  20  points,  the  lower 
limit  of  the  second  quintile,  seems  to  offer  the  most  satis- 
factory place  for  a  tentative  limiting  line  for  minimal 
essentials.  This  places  twenty-one  countries  in  the 
"minimal-essential  list."  These  countries  should  receive 
a  more  comprehensive  treatment  than  would  be  given  to 
the  remaining  thirty-one  countries. 

In  the  selection  of  a  minimal  list  of  cities  several  factors, 
such  as  import  and  export  trade,  advantages  of  location, 
importance  of  hinterland,  and  advantages  of  transpor- 
tation, were  tried  as  standards,  but  the  lack  of  sufficient 
data  for  many  cities  rendered  such  work  unsatisfactory. 
A  very  close  correlation,  however,  was  found  to  obtain 
between  these  standards,  in  cases  where  such  data  were 


MEASURING  RESULTS  275 

available,  and  the  single  standard  of  population.  It  was 
decided,  therefore,  to  use  the  standard  of  population  as  a 
criterion  for  determining  the  list  of  cities.  After  consid- 
ering the  list  of  cities  determined  by  the  single  standard 
of  population,  it  was  believed  that  the  largest  city  of  each 
of  the  twenty-one  essential  countries  of  the  world  (as 
previously  determined)  should  be  included  in  the  list, 
with  the  addition  of  all  other  cities  of  more  than 
200.000  population  in  the  Western  Hemisphere,  of  all 
other  cities  of  more  than  600,000  population  in  Europe, 
and  of  all  other  cities  of  more  than  800,000  population  in 
the  rest  of  the  world.  This  standard  of  population  was 
established  on  the  basis  of  American  relations  to  the  differ- 
ent regions  of  the  world. 

This  basis  of  selection  gives  a  list  (for  a  complete  list 
of  cities  see  the  test  that  follows)  of  29  cities  for  the 
United  States;  10  for  the  Western  Hemisphere,  exclusive 
of  the  United  States;  18  for  Europe;  and  9  for  Asia, 
Africa,  Australia,  and  the  scattered  islands.  All  of  these 
are  located  in  the  more  important  countries,  with  the 
exception  of  Habana,  Montevideo,  and  Santiago. 

In  selecting  a  minimal  list  of  products  dependence  has 
been  placed  upon  the  value  of  production  in  the  United 
States,  supplemented  by  the  value  of  products  imported 
into  the  United  States.  The  aggregate  value  of  a  class  of 
products  may  be  large  with  large  quantities  in  use  and  a 
low  price,  or  with  small  quantities  in  use  and  a  high  price. 
Neither  price  nor  quantity  is  an  exclusive  index  of  the  im- 
portance of  the  products  to  man.  Ranking  products  in 
order  of  aggregate  values  has  the  advantage  of  taking 
both  these  factors  into  consideration. 


TABLE  I.    FIFTY-TWO  COUNTRIES  RANKED   IN  IMPOR- 
TANCE IN  TERMS   OF  SIX   CRITERIA1 


Country 


23. 

24. 

25- 

26. 
27. 

28. 

29. 
3°- 
31- 
32- 
33- 
34- 
35- 
3r>- 
37- 
38. 
39- 
40. 
41. 
42. 

43' 

44. 

45' 
46. 

47- 

4s- 
49- 


United  States  .  .  . 
Great  Britain  .  .  . 
Germany      .... 

France 

India 

Austria-Hungary  .     . 

Russia 

Canada    

Italy    

Japan  

China 

Brazil 

Argentina  .... 
Netherlands      .     .     . 

Mexico 

Belgium 

Australia      .... 

Spain 

Sweden   

Egypt 

Turkey    

Switzerland  .... 

Chile 

South  African  Union 
Philippine  Islands     . 

Peru 

Cuba 

Denmark      .... 

Norway 

Algeria 

New  Zealand    .     .     . 

Persia 

Portugal 

Rumania  .... 
Venezuela  .... 
Uruguay       .... 

Bolivia 

>iam 

Greece 

Morocco       .... 

Serbia 

Bulgaria 

Ecuador  

Haiti 

Tunis 

Honduras  .... 
Costa  Rica  .... 
Guatemala  .... 
Panama 


Akea 


4 
29 


3 
32 

27 


49 
9 

5° 
6 

24 
25 
i7 
12 

48 
19 
14 
31 
11 

15 
4" 
28 
iS 
33 
J3 
43 
37 
16 


4' 
26 

44 

4° 


Popula- 
tion 


52- 


Salvador  . 
1  'araguay 

Liberia     . 


34 

42 


1  i 


3*3 
23 

17 
26 
29 
37 

4' 
28 
48 


39 
46 

38 
18 


$4 
33 

44 
4° 
43 


4  7 
59 
45 


Total 
Imports 


"9 
17 
26 


33 

40 

39 
iS 

23 
24 


29 
25 
43 
34 
42 


4  7 
44 
38 

4" 
4'x 
4? 
."> 


Imports 

from 
United 
States 


(0 

I 

2 

5 

22 
8 


39 
43 


Total 
Exports 


27 
15 
26 
20 
31 
32 
38 
19 
28 
29 
24 
35 
33 
22 

42 
30 
36 

34 
40 
48 
4' 
39 
44 
43 


4'' 

4" 


37 
34 
4" 


1  Compiled  from  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States,  1915. 
276 


TABLE  II.  POINTS  SCORED  BY  FIFTY-TWO  COUNTRIES  IN 
SIX   CRITERIA  OF  IMPORTANCE1 


Imports 

Exports  I 

Country 

Area 

[Popula- 

Total 

F  ROM 

Total 

TO 

Total 

tion 

Imports 

United 

Exports 

United 

States 

States 

1 

i.  United  States     .     . 

5       | 

5 

(5) 

5 

(5) 

3° 

2.  Great  Britain      .     . 

5 

^ 

5 

5 

5 

5 

28 

3.  Germany  .... 

3 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

28 

4.   France 

? 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

28 

5.    India     .     .     -     .     . 

5 

5 

5 

3 

5 

5 

28 

6.  Austria-Hungary     . 

4 

5 

5 

5 

5 

4 

28 

7.   Russia 

5 

5 

5 

4 

5 

3 

27 

8.  Canada       .... 

4 

4 

5 

4 

5 

27 

9.   Italy       

2 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

27 

10.  Japan     

3 

5 

4 

5 

4 

5 

26 

11.   China 

5 

5 

4 

4 

4 

4 

26 

12.   Brazil 

5 

4 

3 

4 

4 

5 

25 

13.  Argentina       .     .     . 

5 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

25 

14.   Netherlands  . 

1 

3 

5 

5 

5 

5 

24 

1;.   Mexico       .... 

, 

4 

3 

4 

3 

5 

24 

10.    Belgium     .... 

t 

3 

5 

5 

5 

4 

23 

17.   Australia    .... 

5 

2 

4 

5 

4 

3 

23 

iS.  Spain 

3 

4 

4 

4 

3 

3 

21 

19.  Sweden      .... 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

3 

21 

20.   Egypt 

4 

4 

3 

2 

3 

4 

20 

21.  Turkey      .... 

4 

4 

3 

2 

3 

4 

20 

22.  Switzerland    .     .     . 

1 

2 

4 

4 

4 

4 

!9 

25.   Chile 

4 

2 

3 

3 

3 

4 

'9 

24.  South  African  Union 

4 

3 

3 

3 

4 

2 

19 

25.  Philippine  Islands. 

2 

4 

2 

4 

2 

4 

18 

26.  Peru 

4 

3 

2 

3 

2 

4 

iS 

27.  Cuba 

4 

3 

1 

3 

2 

4 

17 

28.   Denmark  .... 

1 

2 

4 

4 

4 

2 

17 

29.   Norway      .... 

3 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

17 

30.  Algeria       .... 

4 

3 

3 

2 

3 

1 

16 

31.   New  Zealand      .     . 

2 

1 

3 

3 

3 

3 

J5 

32.   Persia 

4 

4 

2 

1 

2 

2 

15 

2^-   Portugal    .... 

1 

3 

3 

3 

2 

2 

M 

34.    Rumania   .... 

2 

3 

3 

2 

3 

1 

14 

35.   Venezuela 

4 

2 

1 

3 

1 

3 

14 

36.    Bolivia       .... 

5 

2 

1 

2 

2 

1 

13 

37.  Uruguay    .... 

2 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

13 

38.  Siam 

3 

4 

2 

1 

2 

1 

13 

39.  Greece       .... 

2 

2 

2 

1 

2 

2 

1 1 

40.  Morocco    .... 

3 

3 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 1 

41.   Serbia 

1 

2 

2 

r 

2 

2 

10 

42.  Bulgaria    .... 

2 

2 

2 

1 

2 

1 

10 

4 }.   Ecuador    .... 

1 

1 

2 

1 

2 

10 

44.   Haiti 

1 

1 

3 

1 

1 

9 

45.  Tunis 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

9 

46.    Honduras 

2 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

9 

4  7.   Costa  Rica     .     .     . 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

3 

9 

48.   Guatemala 

2 

1 

1 

2 

1 

2 

9 

49.    Panama      .... 

j 

1 

1 

2 

1 

2 

8 

50.  Salvador    .... 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

7 

;  1 .   Paraguay  .... 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

7 

*?,   Liberia       .... 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

6 

1  Compiled  from  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States,  1915. 


278  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Ranking  the  products  on  the  basis  of  the  aggregate 
values  of  each  product  for  all  countries  is  desirable,  but, 
because  of  unsatisfactory  data,  impracticable.  Fortu- 
nately, from  a  somewhat  different  point  of  view  statistics 
almost  as  satisfactory  can  be  obtained.  Recent  world 
events  have  brought  out  in  an  emphatic  manner  the  com- 
mercial dependence  of  every  first-class  power  upon 
practically  every  part  of  the  earth.  The  United  States, 
consequently,  either  produces  practically  all  important 
materials  or  imports  them  in  large  quantities  from 
other  producing  areas.  Hence  a  consideration  of  the 
products  of  the  United  States  and  the  products  imported 
into  the  United  States  offers  a  comprehensive  list  of  the 
world's  industrial  products. 

Only  the  more  significant  of  these  products  should  be 
included  in  the  minimal-essential  list  (for  this  list  of 
products  see  Part  III  of  the  completion  test  that  follows). 
It  has  been  assumed  that  all  plant,  animal,  and  mineral 
products  with  a  production  value  in  the  United  States  of 
85,000,000  or  more  annually  should  be  considered,  and 
that  this  list  should  be  supplemented  by  all  products,  not 
otherwise  included,  imported  in  quantities  valued  at 
$5,000,000  annually. 

Irrespective  of  values,  however,  materials  of  general 
distribution  (such  as  hay,  clay,  sand,  and  stone)  or  ma- 
terials (such  as  mushrooms)  for  which  information  con- 
cerning distribution  is  inadequate  have  been  omitted. 

A  test  based  on  the  minimal  essentials.  In  the  following 
test  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  test  not  only  knowledge 
of  place  geography  but  also   knowledge   of   geographic 


MEASURING  RESULTS  279 

relationships.  In  organizing  the  relational  material  it  has 
been  assumed  that  location,  area,  surface  features,  soils, 
climate,  distribution  of  plant  and  animal  forms,  and  distri- 
bution of  minerals  are  the  significant  physical  factors. 
The  pupil's  knowledge  of  geography  has  not  been  tested 
sufficiently  unless  he  has  shown  his  appreciation  of  the 
ways  these  factors  have  influenced  man  and  unless  he 
shows  his  ability  to  select  important  factors  that  enter 
into  a  geographic  situation. 


COMPLETION  TEST  FOR  THE  MEASUREMENT  OF  MINI- 
MAL   GEOGRAPHIC     KNOWLEDGE    OF    ELEMENTARY- 
SCHOOL    CHILDREN 

Part  I 

On  an  outline  map  of  the  world  indicate  the  location  of  the 
continents  and  oceans  by  writing  the  names  in  the  proper 
places. 

Part  II 

On  an  outline  map  of  the  world  write  in  the  correct  place 
the  name  of  each  of  the  following  countries :  United  States, 
Great  Britain,  Germany,  France,  India,  Italy,  Russia,  Canada, 
Austria-Hungary,  Japan,  China,  Brazil,  Argentina,  Nether- 
lands, Mexico,  Belgium,  Australia,  Spain,  Sweden,  Egypt,  and 
Turkey.  (The  recent  readjustments  in  Europe  require  a  slight 
modification,  Austria  and  Hungary  being  two  separate  coun- 
tries, and  Czechoslovakia,  Jugoslavia,  and  Poland  being  three 
new  countries  that  probably  should  be  included.) 

Given  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States,  with  the  location 
of  the  minimum  list  of  cities  indicated  by  number  and  the  list 


280  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

of  cities  accompanying  the  map,  write  opposite  each  city  the 
appropriate  number. 

Given  an  outline  map  of  the  world,  with  the  location  of  the 
minimum  list  of  cities,  except  those  of  the  United  States,  indi- 
cated by  number  and  the  list  of  cities  accompanying  the  map, 
write  opposite  each  city  the  appropriate  number. 

Part  III 

(Test  to  be  applied  to  any  country) 

Country 

i.  Give  the  direction  of  this  country  from  your  home 
city . 

2.  Give  in  square  miles  the  approximate  area  of  the  United 

States •    Underline    the    term    that    more    nearly 

expresses  the  area  of  the  above-named  country  in  comparison 
with  the  United  States :  Larger.  Smaller.  Approximately  the 
same. 

3.  Give  the  approximate  population  of  the  United  States 

.    Underline  the  term  that  more  nearly  expresses 

the  population  of  the  above  country  in  comparison  with  the 
United    States :    Larger.    Smaller.    Approximately    the   same. 

4.  Indicate  an  important  highland  of  this  country , 

5.  Underline  the  statements  that  more  nearly  indicate  the 
prevailing   conditions   of  this   highland : 

Easy  to  cross  Permanent  snow  fields 

Extends  above  tree  line  Much  mining 

Large  cities  No  large  cities 

Dense  population  Herding  industry  important 

Difficult  to  cross 

6.  Indicate  an  important  river  basin  or  lowland  of  this 
country 

7.  Underline  the  statements  that  more  nearly  indicate  the 
prevailing  conditions  concerning  this  lowland : 


MEASURING  RESULTS 


281 


Dense  population  Agriculture  important 

River  important  for  navigation  Manufacturing  important 

Irrigation  practiced  Sparse  population 

Much  mining  Herding  important 

Much  swamp  and  overflow  land 

8.  Underline  the  statement  that  more  nearly  describes  the 
prevailing  temperature  of  the  country :  Primarily  in  hot  belt. 
Primarily  in  cold  belt.    Primarily  in  intermediate  belt. 

9.  Underline  the  statement  that  describes  the  prevailing 
rainfall:  Heavy  rainfall  (above  50  inches).  Moderate  rain- 
fall (20  to  50  inches).    Light  rainfall  (less  than  20  inches). 

10.  Underline  the  name  of  each  plant  product  that  is  im- 
portant in  this  country : 


Corn 

Wheat 

Oats 

Barley 

Rye 

Buckwheat 

Potatoes 


Cotton 

Tobacco 

Flax 

Rice 

Sugar 

Apples 

Beans 


Peaches 

Peas 

Silk 

Cocoa 

Coffee 

Tea 

Oranges 


Lemons 

Fibers 

Rubber 

Bananas 

Grapes 

Nuts 

Wood 


11.  Write  the  name  of  one  of  the  products  underlined  above 
•    Underline   its  important  use  or   uses : 

Food  for  man  Clothing  Food  for  animals 

Fuel  Shelter  Luxury 

12.  Underline  the  name  of  each  animal  that  is  important  in 
this  country : 

Cattle       Hogs       Sheep       Horses       Mules       Goats       Poultry 

13.  Write  the  name  of  one  of  the  classes  of  animals  under- 
lined   above ...    Underline    its    important    use    or 

uses : 

Meat  Milk  Clothing  Eggs  Beast  of  burden 


Natural  gas 

Aluminum 

Tin 

Zinc 

Silver 

Lead 

2  82  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

14.  Underline  the  name  of  each  mineral  product  that  is 
important  in  this  country : 

Coal  Nickel 

Iron  Copper 

Petroleum  Gold 

Phosphates  Sulphur 

15.  Write    the    name   of   one   mineral    product    underlined 
above .    Underline  its  important  use  or  uses : 

Fuel  Alloy  Paints 

Machinery  Light  Plumbing  supplies 

Fertilizer  Jewelry  Chemicals 

16.  Underline  the  prevailing  manufacturing  conditions: 
Extensive  Moderate  Slight 

17.  Underline  the  influential  factors  in  the  development  of 
manufacturing: 

Good  water  power  Abundant  capital 

Much  coal  Little  water  power 

Abundant  labor  supply  Insufficient  labor  supply 

Scarcity  of  coal  Scarcity  of  capital 

18.  Underline   statements   that   properly   describe   the   pre- 
vailing conditions  of  transportation : 

Rivers  important  Railroads  well  developed 

Rivers  of  little  importance  Railroads  undeveloped 

Lakes  very  important  Public  roads  well  improved 

Lakes  of  little  importance  Public  roads  in  bad  condition 

19.  Underline  each  of  the  cities  of  this  country: 

Washington  Boston  Philadelphia  Toronto 

London  Buffalo  Pittsburgh  Budapest 


MEASURING  RESULTS 


283 


Berlin 

Paris 

Petrograd 

Vienna 

Tokio 

Rio  de  Janeiro 

Buenos  Aires 

Mexico  City 

Brussels 

Sydney 

Madrid 

Stockholm 

Cairo 

Constantinople 

Baltimore 


Chicago 

Cincinnati 

Cleveland 

Columbus 

Denver 

Detroit 

Indianapolis 

Jersey  City 

Kansas  City 

Los  Angeles 

Louisville 

Milwaukee 

Minneapolis 

Newark 

New  Orleans 


Portland 

Providence 

Rochester 

St.  Louis 

St.  Paul 

San  Francisco 

Seattle 

New  York 

Bahia 

Habana 

Montevideo 

Montreal 

Santiago 

Sao  Paulo 


Glasgow 

Hamburg 

Liverpool 

Manchester 

Moscow 

Naples 

Warsaw 

Bombay 

Canton 

Hankow 

Osaka 

Tientsin 

Calcutta 

Amsterdam 


20.  Write  the  name  of  one  of  the  cities  underlined  in  the 


preceding    exercise 

that  describe  this  city : 

Seaport 

River  port 

Lake  port 

Important  railroad  center 

A  political  capital 


..    Underline    the    statements 

A  mountain-pass  city 

An  important  manufacturing 

center 
An  important  commercial 

center 


The  various  parts  of  the  topical  outline — location, 
area,  population,  topography,  climate,  economic  products, 
and  important  cities — are  included  in  the  test,  and  the 
relational  viewpoint  has   been   stressed.1 

1  For  a  more  detailed  account  of  the  test  see  M.  E.  Branom  and 
VV.  C.  Reavis,  "The  Determination  and  Measurement  of  the  Minimal 
Essentials  of  Elementary-School  Geography,''  Seventeenth  Yearbook  of 
the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  pp.  27-39. 


284  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

TYPES  OF  QUESTIONS  USEFUL  IN  TESTING 

i.  Informational.  Where  is  New  York  City?  Where  is 
Poland  ?  In  what  part  of  the  United  States  are  oranges 
produced  in  large  quantities? 

2.  Interpretative.  Why  is  there  a  semiarid  region  east  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains?  Why  is  the  Amazon  basin  sparsely 
populated  ? 

The  informational  question  frequently  is  used  as  a 
basis  for  the  interpretative.  The  question  Where  are 
oranges  raised?  may  be  answered,  In  Florida  and  Cali- 
fornia. The  next  question  may  be  interpretative :  W'hy 
are  oranges  raised  in  Florida  and  California? 

3.  Statements  to  be  filled  in: 

The  two  chief  rivers  of  Italy  are  the and 

the 

Mulberry  trees  are  grown  in  many  parts  of  Italy,  especially 


The  most  important  nut  tree  of  Italy  is  the 
The  largest  city  of  Italy  is 


4.  Statements  to  be  answered  rryes"  if  entirely  correct  and 
"no"  if  in  part  wrong: 

Chicago,  located  near  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Michigan,  is 

the  largest  city  of  the  United  States.    (No) 
The  United  States  imports  large  quantities  of  raw  sugar.  (Yes) 

5.  A  meaningful  statement  to  be  made  if  a  word  or  expres- 
sion is  given : 

Vesuvius        Vienna        Punta  Arenas        Rubber        Sahara  Desert 

6.  Varying  degrees  of  definiteness.  Tell  why  New  York 
City  has  grown  so  rapidly.  The  pupil  is  left  to  make  a  brief 
or  elaborate  statement  as  he  desires.  Name  five  reasons  why 
New  York  City  has  grown  so  rapidly.    The  pupil  is  definitely 


MEASURING  RESULTS  285 

limited.  Name  all  the  reasons  you  can  think  of  why  New  York 
City  has  grown  so  rapidly.  An  attempt  is  made  to  get  the 
pupil  to  exhaust  his  information  relative  to  the  question. 

7.  Questions  asked  by  pupils.  Make  a  list  of  informational 
and  interpretative  questions  bearing  on  Japan. 

Conclusion.  The  formulation  of  adequate  tests  in  ge- 
ography is  closely  related  to  the  establishment  of  definite 
aims.  Substantial  progress  has  been  made  in  testing 
knowledge  of  place  geography  and  factual  geography.  A 
beginning  has  been  made  in  testing  knowledge  of  interpre- 
tative geography  and  of  ability  to  use  geographic  knowl- 
edge ;  it  may  be  expected  that  in  time  ideals  also  can  be 
tested  satisfactorily.  The  recognition  of  the  significance 
of  geography  in  giving  training  for  citizenship  and  for  in- 
telligent participation  in  the  world's  progress  has  directed 
the  attention  of  educators  toward  the  need  of  reorganizing 
this  subject  with  the  purpose  of  realizing  definite  educa- 
tional results. 

Suggestions  for  Further  Study : 

1.  Why  is  it  desirable  to  measure  results  as  accurately  as 
possible  ? 

2.  Why  is  it  difficult  to  measure  all  the  desired  products  of 
a  geographic  course  quantitatively  ? 

3.  Is  it  probable  that  tests  or  scales  will  be  found  more  desirable 
in  measuring  geographic  accomplishment  ? 

4.  Select  an  areal  unit  for  study,  as  Argentina  or  Poland,  indi- 
cate the  immediate  aims  that  you  have  in  mind,  note  the  materials 
of  geography  that  you  may  use  and  how  you  may  use  them,  and  set 
up  a  test  by  means  of  which  you  can  ascertain  whether  the  aims  are 
realized. 

5.  As  suggested  by  the  organization  of  this  book,  what  should 
the  teacher's  knowledge  of  the  "pedagogy  of  geography"  include? 


286  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Selected  References : 

Bagley,  W.  C.  "  Determination  of  Minimum  Essentials  in  Geog- 
raphy and  History."  Fourteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National 
Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  pp.    131-147. 

Bagley,  W.  C.  "  Minimum  Essentials  in  Elementary  Geography," 
Journal  of Geography  (1918;,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  120-122. 

Barnes,  Earl.    Studies  in  Education  (1902),  Vol.  II. 

Braxom,  M.  E.,  and  Reavis,  W.  C.  "  The  Determination  and 
Measurement  of  the  Minimal  Essentials  of  Elementary-School 
Geography, "  Seventeenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for 
the  Study  of  Education,  pp.   27-39. 

Brown.  R.  M.  "  The  Minimum  Requirement,"  Journal  of  Geog- 
raphy, Vol.  XIII,  pp.  48-50. 

Buckingham,  B.  R.  Geography  Test,  State  Department  of  Public 
Instruction,   Madison.  Wisconsin. 

Coffman,  Lotus  D.  "  Methods  used  in  the  Determination  of 
Minimum  Essentials,"  Teachers  College  Record,  Vol.  XVIII, 
pp.  243-252. 

Courtis,  S.  A.  "  Measuring  the  Effects  of  Supervision  in  Geog- 
raphy," School  and  Society  (191 9),  Vol.  X,  pp.  61-70. 

Hahn.  H.  H.  Harm-Lackey  Geography  Scale,  Wayne  State  Normal 
School.  Nebraska. 

Johnson.  D.  W.  "College-Entrance  Examination  Answers  in  Geog- 
raphy," Journal  of  Geography  (191 6),  Vol.  XV,  pp.  125-127. 

Kendall,  C.  "  Standards  and  Tests  of  Efficiency  in  Geography," 
Journal  of  Education  (191 4).  Vol.  LXXIX,  pp.  315-316. 

Knight.  Bessie  P.  "  Minimum  Essentials  in  Elementary  Geog- 
raphy." Journal  of  Geography  (1917)-  Vol-  XV.  pp.    1  73— r  79- 

Lackey.  E.  E.  "  Measuring  the  Ability  of  Children  in  Geography." 
Journal  of  Geography  ( 4  91 8).  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  184-188. 

Martin.  Lawrence.  "Examinations  in  Elementary  Geography," 
Journal  of  Geography  (191 6),  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  298-299. 

Miller,  G.  J.  "Essentials  of  Modern  Geography  and  Criteria  for 
their  Determination,"  Journal  of  Geography  (191  5),  Vol.  XIII, 
pp.  1  29  -t  35. 

Redwav,  J.    The  New  Basis  of  Geography,  chap.  vii.  pp.  120- 139. 

Ridgley,  I).  C.  "Teaching  of  Place  Geography,"  Journal  of  Geog- 
raphy (191  2;,  Vol.  XI.  pp.   13-16. 


MEASURING  RESULTS  287 

Starch,  Daniel.    Geography  Tests,  Series  A,  University  of  Wis- 
consin, Madison,  Wisconsin. 
Sutherland,  William.    The  Teaching  of  Geography,  chap,  xxii, 

pp.   274-291. 
Tarr,    R.   S.    "  Results  to  be  expected  from   a   School   Course  in 

Geography, n  Journal  of  Geography  (\  90  5),  Vol.  I\ T,  pp.  145-148; 

Whitreck,    R.    H.,    pp.    149-154;    Genthe,    pp.    155-109; 

Jefferson,  pp.   160-163. 
Thompson",    T.    E.     Standard    Tests    in     Geography,    Monrovia, 

California. 
Whitheck,  R.  II.    "  Measuring  Efficiency  in  the  Teaching  of  Geog- 
raphy,'* Journal  of  Geography  1 191  4).  Vol.  XIII,  pp.  53-55. 
Whitheck,    R.    II.     ''Where  shall   we    lay   the    Emphasis   in   the 

Teaching  of  Geography  ?"  Journal  of  Geography  (19 10),  Vol. 

XXXI.   p.    10S. 
WiTiiAM.  E.  C.  Standard  Geography  Tests,  Southington,  Connecticut. 
Young,  Sarah.  "  The  Teaching  of  Geography."  in  Barnes's  Studies 

in  Education,  Vol.  II,  pp.  3 7 3 — 3 <S S . 
Boston   Tests,   Bulletin   Xo.  j,   School    Document   Xo.    14  (1915), 

Department    of    Educational    Investigation    and    Measurement, 

Boston. 
Report   of    Boston's    Attempt    to  ascertain    Results   of    Geography 

Teaching.    School    Document    Xo.    14.  Journal  op'  Geography 

(191 7),  Vol.  XV,  pp.   1 41-149. 


INDEX 


Activities  of  man,  4-17;  vocational, 
4-16;  agricultural,  5-S;  pastoral, 
8-9;    lumbering,    9-10;    hunting 
and  trapping,  10;  fishing,  10-11; 
mining,     n-12;     manufacturing, 
12-13;  transporting,  13-15;  pro- 
fessional, 15;  as  middleman,  16; 
as  investor,  16;  recreational,  17; 
political,  iS 
Actual  journeys,  21 1-2 17 
Agricultural  activities,  5-S 
Aims,     62-71;     usable    knowledge, 
62-63;    enlightened   outlook,   63; 
practical     and     cultural,     63-64; 
adjustment,    64;    method    versus 
content,    65 ;    training    and    cul- 
tural,  66;    brotherhood    of   man, 
66;   aesthetic  enjoyment,   67;    St. 
Louis  Survey,  0S-69;  immediate, 
69-70 
Andrews,  Cyril  Bruyn,  cited.  234 
Appalachians,  lumbering  in  the,  9 
Archer,  Lewis,  and  Chapman,  cited, 

63 
Argentina     developed     by     topical 

outline,    203-205 
Argumentative  lesson.  103-200 
Arithmetic,    relation    of    geography 

to,  45-47 
Assignments,  motivated,  156-157 

Baber,  Zonia,  cited,  66-67 
Bagley,  W.  ('.,  cited.  260-270 
Branom-Reavis  test.  272-2S3 
Britain  a  world  power,  ^,2> 

Chamberlain,  James  F.,  cited,   in 
Cii:.rts  and  diagrams,  124 
Children,  pre-school  knowledge  of, 

76-78 
Chile,     development     of.     through 

topical  outline,  204-205 


China,  civilization  of,  33 

Cities,   illustration   of    type   study, 

224-225 
Civilization,  development  of,  22-38 
Class  as  a  unit,  133-134 
Classes  of  problems,  182-184 
Collings,  Fryor  McBee,  cited,  253- 

255 
Commerce,  3-4 
Commercial-geography    field    trips, 

102 
Construction      work,      motivation 

through,    168-170 
Content,  socializing  the,   145-146 
Cook,  Jane  Ferry,  cited,  65-66 
Cooperation  of  pupils,  146-149 
Correlation,  40-49 
Course    of  study,   organization    of, 

75-89 
Current  events,  motivation  of  geog- 
raphy through,  166-167 

Dairy  plants,  trips  to,  21 1-2 12 
Debating.  196-199 
Demands  of  socialization,   146-15Z 
Details,  study  of,  through  types,  226 
Diagrams  and  charts,  124 
Difficulties  in  problem  work,  1S7- 

189 
Discoveries     through     field     trips, 

214-215 
Diversity    of    materials    in    lower 

grades,  S1-S2 
Dodge,  R.  E.,  and  Kirchwey,  C.  B.? 

cited,  62-63,  67-6S 
Dramatization,  23S-245 
Dutch,  explorations  of  the,  32-33 

Earth   as   a  whole,  building   up  a 

concept  of  the,  S2-83 
Enclish,  relation  of  geography  to, 

44-45 


:S9 


290 


THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


Environment,  effects  of,  on  people, 
22-25 

Eskimo  type  and  dramatization, 
239-240 

Essentials,   selecting,    55 

Eurasia,  development  of  civiliza- 
tion  in,   32-35 

Europe,  new   countries   of,  34-35 

Excursion  work,  95-103 

Fairgrieve,  James,  cited,  36 
Fairy    tales    versus   nature    stories, 

234 
Field     work,     value     of,     95-96; 

reasons  for  insufficient,  96-102 
Fishing  activities,   10-11 
Flour,  manufacture  of,  12-13 
Foreign  lands,  interest  of  children 

in,    79-80 
France  a  world  power,  33 
Free  activity,  1 50-1 51 
Function    of    teacher   in    socialized 

work,   149-150 

Geographers,    relation    of,    to    the 

teacher,    56—57 
Geography,  practical  nature  of,  3- 

20 
Germany,  location  of,  33-34 
Globes  and  maps,  1 21-124 
Group  work,  134-141 

Hahn-Lackey  scale,  270-272 
Henderson,  Bertha,  cited,  66 
Historv,  relation  of  geography  to, 

47-48 
Holtz,  F.  L.,  cited,  63,  224 
Home    geography,    effects    of    war 

on,   53 
Human  geography,  54 
Human   type-,   classification  of,  80 
Hunting  activities,  10 

Iberian       Peninsula,      explorations 

from   the,   31 
Illustrations,    topical    outline,    203- 

205;    project    work.    249-251 
Imaginary  journeys,   277-222 
Individual   collections   of  products, 

105- 107 
Individual  work,   141-143 


Industries,  studying,  216-217 
Inferences,  verifying,  through  trips, 

214 
Interests  and  motives,  170-171 
Investment  activities,    16 
Iron    ores,   importance    of,    to    St. 

Louis,     11-12 

Japan,  illustration  of  relation  of,  to 
various  subjects,  40-41 ;  illustra- 
tion of  topic  treated  by  limited 
free  activity,  1 51-15  2 
Johnson,  D.  D.,  cited,  145-146 
Journey  geography,  211-223;  re- 
lation of,  to  type  studies,  82-83 

Lackey,  E.  E.,  cited,  270-272 

Language,  expression  of  geography 
through,    124-125 

Lantern,  11S-119 

Linke,  Edith  A.,  cited.  256-258 

Literature,  relation  of  geography 
to,    49 

Local  activities,  motivation  of  geog- 
raphy through,  168-170 

Local  environments,  importance  of, 
78~79 

Logical  versus  psychological  de- 
velopment,   87-88 

Lumbering  activities,  9-10 

McMurry,  Charles,  cited,  229 
Maddox.  John  J.,  project  work, 

258-261 
Manufacturing  activities,  12-13 
Maps,  126 
Maps  and  globes.  1 21-124;  use  of, 

during  war,  54-55 
Margarine  plant,  visit  to,  212-213 
Materials  for  problem-solving,  1S0- 

182 
Measuring  results.  265-2S7 
Mediterranean  civilization,  2S-30 
Memory      work      versus      problem 

work.  174-178 
Method,    evolution    of    geographic, 

51-61;  socializing  the,  145-146 
Middleman  activities,  16 
Milk,   preparation    of,   for  market, 

211-2:2 
Miller,  George  J.,  cited,  266-267 


INDEX 


291 


Mining  activities,  11-12 

Missouri,   iron    ores   of,    11-12;    a 

project  on,  249-251 
Motivation  of  geography,  165-172 
Motive,  247-249 
Motives  during  study  periods,  157- 

160 
Motion  pictures,  119-121 
Moulton,  Estella  L.,  cited,  120 
Mutual  assistance  of  subjects,  40 

Natural  regions,  84-85 

Nature   stories    versus    fairy    tales, 

234 
Newfoundland    Banks,    fishing    on 

the,  io-ii 
New  World,  spread  of  civilization 

in  the,  31-32 
New    York     City     to    St.    Louis, 

journey  from,  217-219 
Nile  Valley,  civilization  in  the,  25- 

26 

Observational  geography,  93-107 
Organization  of  the  class,  133-144 
Organizing  centers,  226-228 
Orient,    closing    of    routes    to    the, 

30-3 1 
Outlines,   relation  of,   to   problems, 


Packard.  L.  I.,  cited,  267-268 
Partridge,  Emelyn  Newcomb,  cited, 

234-235 
Pas-inn   interests,    158 
Pastoral  activities,  S-9 
Pedagogy  of  problem-solving,  184- 

1S7 
Phoenicians.  28 
Physical-geography  field  trips,  101- 

102 
Pictures.    1 10-119;    value   of,    114; 

collecting,     114-116;     classes    of, 

117 
Place  geography,  19-20 
Place  tests,  208-270,  270-280 
Play  level,  projects  on  the,  251 
Plays  produced  by  pupils,  23S-239 
Poland,    example    of    the    problem 

method.  57-00 
Political  activities,  iS 


Political  regions,  84 

Populations,  future  distribution  of, 

36-37 
Portuguese  discovery  of  a  route  to 

the  Indies,  31 
Precipitation,  influence  of,  on  the 

farmer,  5 
Pre-geography  work,  76-78 
Primary  grades,  informal  work  of, 

76-78 
Problem,  example  of,  189-191 
Problem  method,  173-192 
Products    brought   to    schoolroom, 

104-107 
Products,  distribution  of,  3-4 
Professional  activities,   15 
Professional      versus      educational 

dramatization,   240-241 
Projects,    246-261;    relation    of,   to 

topical  outlines,  251-252 
Psychological  versus  logical  devel- 
opment, 87-88 
Public  attitude  toward  field  trips, 

9S-99 
Pupils,    attitude    of,    toward    field 

trips,  97-98 

Questions  for  testing,  284-285 

Railroads,  influence  of  topography 

on,    14 
Reading,  relation  of  geography  to, 

43 
Rcavis-Branom  test,  272-283 
Recitation    period,    relation    of,    to 

study  period,   155-161 
Recreational  activities,  17 
Regional  geography,  83-84 
Regions,  order  of  study  of,  85-86 
Representative  geography,  109-130 
Reviews,    227 
Ridgley,  D.  C,  cited,  270 
Romans,  civilization  of  the.  2S-30 
Rudolph,  A.  Adele,  cited,  1OS-170 
Russia,  the  beginnings  of,  33 

St.  Louis  to  New  York  City,  jour- 
ney from,  217-219 
St.  Louis  School  Survey,  6S-69 
School  projects,  246-247 
Scoring.  193-196 


292 


THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


Sketch    maps,   expression    through, 

213-214 
Smith,  J.  Russell,  cited,  67 
Socialization,  145-15 1 
Soils,  influence  of,  on  farming,  6-7 
South   America,   example   of    topic 

treated  by  limited  free  activity, 

152-153 
Spaniards,  explorations  by,  in  the 

New  World,  31-32 
Spelling,  relation  of  geography  to, 

43-44 
Stereoscopes,  117-118 
Story,  the,  231-236 
Story-telling  by  pupils,  233 
Study  period,  relation   of,  to  reci- 
tation period,  155-161 
Studying,  160-161 
Subgroups,     study     of     geography 

through,  134-141 
Subject,  geography  as  a,  39-40 
Supervision    of    geography    study, 

158-160 
Supplementary  reading,  127 
Sutherland,  William  J.,  cited,  64 
Symbols,       geographic,       109-130; 
value  of,  109-110 

Teachers,  preparation  of,  for  field 

trips,  103-104 
Telling  a  good  story,  232-233 
Temperature,   influence  of,   on   the 

farmer,  5-6 
Testing,  265-287 
Textbooks,  geographic,  126 
Thompson,  T.  E.,  cited,  269 
Tigris-Euphrates    valleys,    civiliza- 
tion in  the,  26-27 
Tool  and  content  subjects,  41-42 


Topical  outline,  201-209 

Topical  outlines  and  projects,  251- 
256 

Topics,  study  of,  in  relation,  205- 
206 

Topography,  relation  of,  to  farm- 
ing,  7 

Transportation   activities,   13-15 

Trapping  activities,  10 

Type  studies,  224-230;  relations  of, 
to  journey  geography,  S2-83 

United  States,  cause  of  the  great- 
ness of  the,  35-36 

Usable  products  secured  through 
projects,  249 

Valley  civilizations,  25-28 
Viewpoint,    maintaining    the    geo- 
graphic, 49 
Vocational   activities,  4-16 

Walker,  Alberta,  cited,  242-244 
Waterways,  navigation  of,  13-14 
Wheat,  production  of,  12 
Whitbeck,  R.  H.,  cited,  64-65 
Wilson,   H.   B.,   and   G.   M.,   cited, 

165-166 
Wilson,  J.  H.,  cited,  120-121 
Witham,  Ernest  C,  cited,  269 
World  geography,  87 
World  War,  interest   in  geography 
aroused  through  the,  3  ;  and  ge- 
ography  method,   52-55 
Writing,  relation  of,  to  geography, 

44 
Wyman  School,  world's  fair  proj- 
ect in  the,  258-261 


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